Electrochromic Materials and Devices

Paul M. S. Monk received his PhD in the electrochemistry of novel electrochromic viologen species at Exeter University in 1989. A postdoctoral research fellow position (1989-91) at the University of Aberdeen, in Scotland, was followed by lecturing positions in Physical Chemistry at Manchester Polytechnic (1991-2) then Manchester Metropolitan University (1992-2007). He is currently employed as a Vicar in an inner-city parish in Oldham, Greater Manchester, UK.Roger J. Mortimer was Professor in Physical Chemistry at Loughborough University between 2006 and his untimely death in 2015. He graduated from Imperial College London with a PhD in heterogeneous catalysis at sold-liquid interfaces. After a postdoctoral research fellowship (1980-81) and visiting associate in chemistry (1988) at the California Institute of Technology, he became demonstrator and a Research Assistant at Exeter University. Lecturing positions in Physical Chemistry ensued at Anglia Ruskin University (1984-87) and Analytical Chemistry at Sheffield Hallam University (1987-89), followed by his appointment as a Lecturer in Physical Chemistry at Loughborough University in 1989.David R. Rosseinsky is an Emeritus Professor and Honorary Research Fellow in Physics at Exeter University, having been Reader in Physical Chemistry there from 1979-1998. After Rhodes University he pursued studies leading to PhD then DSc on charge transfer interactions at Manchester University. Following a sojourn at the University of Pennsylvania, from 1959 he became a lecturer at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg and in 1961, lecturer at Exeter University. With his ex research-student H Kellawi (by then Prof at Damascus University, on sabbatical), they studied Prussian blue and other electrochromic systems, extended in an invited appointment to SIMTech, Singapore, 2000-2002.

• Preface xixAcknowledgements xxiList of Contributors xxiiiPart I Electrochromic Materials and Processing 11 Electrochromic Metal Oxides: An Introduction to Materials and Devices 3Claes-Göran Granqvist1.1 Introduction 31.2 Some Notes on History and Early Applications 51.3 Overview of Electrochromic Oxides 61.4 Transparent Electrical Conductors and Electrolytes 231.5 Towards Devices 301.6 Conclusions 33Acknowledgement 33References 332 Electrochromic Materials Based on Prussian Blue and Other Metal Metallohexacyanates 41David R. Rosseinsky and Roger J. Mortimer2.1 The Electrochromism of Prussian Blue 412.2 Metal Metallohexacyanates akin to Prussian Blue 482.3 Copper Hexacyanoferrate 49References 503 Electrochromic Materials and Devices Based on Viologens 57Paul M. S. Monk, David R. Rosseinsky, and Roger J. Mortimer3.1 Introduction, Naming and Previous Studies 573.2 Redox Chemistry of Bipyridilium Electrochromes 583.3 Physicochemical Considerations for Including Bipyridilium Species in ECDs 613.4 Exemplar Bipyridilium ECDs 723.5 Elaborations 78References 814 Electrochromic Devices Based on Metal Hexacyanometallate/Viologen Pairings 91Kuo-Chuan Ho, Chih-Wei Hu, and Thomas S. Varley4.1 Introduction 914.2 Hybrid (Solid-with-Solution) Electrochromic Devices 934.3 All-Solid Electrochromic Devices 974.4 Other Metal Hexacyanometallate-Viologen-Based ECDs 1044.5 Prospects for Metal Hexacyanometallate-Viologen-Based ECDs 105References 1065 Conjugated Electrochromic Polymers: Structure-Driven Colour and Processing Control 113Aubrey L. Dyer, Anna M. Österholm, D. Eric Shen, Keith E. Johnson, and John R. Reynolds5.1 Introduction and Background 1135.2 Representative Systems 1235.3 Processability of Electrochromic Polymers 1525.4 Summary and Perspective 168Acknowledgements 169References 1696 Electrochromism within Transition-Metal Coordination Complexes and Polymers 185Yu-Wu Zhong6.1 Electronic Transitions and Redox Properties of Transition-Metal Complexes 1856.2 Electrochromism in Reductively Electropolymerised Films of Polypyridyl Complexes 1876.3 Electrochromism in Oxidatively Electropolymerised Films of Transition-Metal Complexes 1926.4 Electrochromism in Self-Assembled or Self-Adsorbed Multilayer Films of Transition-Metal Complexes 1966.5 Electrochromism in Spin-Coated or Drop-Cast Thin Films of Transition-Metal Complexes 2006.6 Conclusion and Outlook 204Acknowledgements 205References 2057 Organic Near-Infrared Electrochromic Materials 211Bin Yao, Jie Zhang, and Xinhua Wan7.1 Introduction 2117.2 Aromatic Quinones 2127.3 Aromatic Imides 2167.4 Anthraquinone Imides 2187.5 Poly(triarylamine)s 2217.6 Conjugated Polymers 2287.7 Other NIR Electrochromic Materials 2357.8 Conclusion 236References 2378 Metal Hydrides for Smart-Window Applications 241Kazuki Yoshimura8.1 Switchable-Mirror Thin Films 2418.2 Optical Switching Property 2428.3 Switching Durability 2438.4 Colour in the Transparent State 2448.5 Electrochromic Switchable Mirror 2458.6 Smart-Window Application 246References 247Part II Nanostructured Electrochromic Materials and Device Fabrication 2499 Nanostructures in Electrochromic Materials 251Shanxin Xiong, Pooi See Lee, and Xuehong Lu9.1 Introduction 2519.2 Nanostructures of Transition Metal Oxides (TMOs) 2539.3 Nanostructures of Conjugated Polymers 2629.4 Nanostructures of Organic-Metal Complexes and Viologen 2679.5 Electrochromic Nanocomposites and Nanohybrids 2689.6 Conclusions and Perspective 281References 28210 Advances in Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochromic Applications 289Alice Lee-Sie Eh, Xuehong Lu, and Pooi See Lee10.1 Introduction 28910.2 Requirements of Polymer Electrolytes in Electrochromic Applications 29010.3 Types of Polymer Electrolytes 29110.4 Polymer Hosts of Interest in Electrochromic Devices 29410.5 Recent Trends in Polymer Electrolytes 30310.6 Future Outlook 305References 30711 Gyroid-Structured Electrodes for Electrochromic and Supercapacitor Applications 311Maik R.J. Scherer and Ullrich Steiner11.1 Introduction to Nanostructured Electrochromic Electrodes 31111.2 Polymer Self-Assembly and the Gyroid Nanomorphology 31511.3 Gyroid-Structured Vanadium Pentoxide 32011.4 Gyroid-Structured Nickel Oxide 32611.5 Concluding Remarks 329References 33112 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Electrochromic Materials: On the Efficient Method for Immobilisation of Nanomaterials 337Susana I. Córdoba de Torresi, Jose R. Martins Neto, Marcio Vidotti, and Fritz Huguenin12.1 Introduction to the Layer-by-Layer Deposition Technique 33712.2 Layer-by-Layer Assembly in Electrochromic Materials 33712.3 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Metal Oxides 34212.4 Layer-by-Layer and Electrophoretic Deposition for Nanoparticles Immobilisation 351Acknowledgements 357References 35713 Plasmonic Electrochromism of Metal Oxide Nanocrystals 363Anna Llordes, Evan L. Runnerstrom, Sebastien D. Lounis, and Delia J. Milliron13.1 Introduction to Plasmonic Electrochromic Nanocrystals 36313.2 History of Electrochromism in Metal and Semiconductor Nanocrystals 36813.3 Doped Metal Oxide Colloidal Nanocrystals as Plasmonic Electrochromic Materials 37713.4 Advanced Electrochromic Electrodes Constructed from Colloidal Plasmonic NCs 38313.5 Conclusions and Outlook 393References 394Part III Applications of Electrochromic Materials 39914 Solution-Phase Electrochromic Devices and Systems 401Harlan J. Byker14.1 Introduction 40114.2 Early History of Solution-Phase EC 40214.3 The World’s Most Widely Used Electrochromic Material 40514.4 Commercialisation of EC Devices 40614.5 Reversibility and Stability in Solution-Phase EC Systems 40914.6 Thickened and Gelled Solution-Phase Systems 41114.7 Nernst Equilibrium, Disproportionation and Stability 41314.8 Closing Remarks 415References 41615 Electrochromic Smart Windows for Dynamic Daylight and Solar Energy Control in Buildings 419Bjørn Petter Jelle15.1 Introduction 41915.2 Solar Radiation 42115.3 Solar Radiation through Window Panes and Glass Structures 42115.4 Solar Radiation Modulation by Electrochromic Windows 42515.5 Experimental 42715.6 Measurement and Calculation Method of Solar Radiation Glazing Factors 43015.7 Spectroscopic Measurement and Calculation of Solar Radiation Glazing Factors 45215.8 Commercial Electrochromic Windows and the Path Ahead 47515.9 Increased Application of Solar Radiation Glazing Factors 47615.10 Conclusions 476Acknowledgements 47715.A Appendix: Tables for Calculation of Solar Radiation Glazing Factors 47715.B Appendix: Tables for Calculation of Thermal Conductance 488References 49216 Fabric Electrochromic Displays for Adaptive Camouflage, Biomimicry, Wearable Displays and Fashion 503Michael T. Otley, Michael A. Invernale, and Gregory A. Sotzing16.1 Introduction 50316.2 Non-Electrochromic Colour-Changing Fabric 51716.3 Conclusion 519References 521Part IV Device Case Studies, Environmental Impact Issues and Elaborations 52517 Electrochromic Foil: A Case Study 527Claes-Göran Granqvist17.1 Introduction 52717.2 Device Design and Optical Properties of Electrochromic Foil 52817.3 Comments on Lifetime and Durability 53217.4 Electrolyte Functionalisation by Nanoparticles 53817.5 Comments and Conclusion 541Acknowledgements 542References 54218 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of Electrochromic Smart Windows 545Uwe Posset and Matthias Harsch18.1 Life Cycle Analysis 54518.2 Application of LCA to Electrochromic Smart Windows 54918.3 LCA of Novel Plastic-Film-Based Electrochromic Devices 56018.4 LCA for EC Target Applications 56418.5 Conclusion 568References 56819 Electrochromic Glazing in Buildings: A Case Study 571John Mardaljevic, Ruth Kelly Waskett, and Birgit Painter19.1 Introduction 57119.2 Variable Transmission Glazing for Use in Buildings 57319.3 Case Study: The De Montfort EC Office Installation 58419.4 Summary 591References 59120 Photoelectrochromic Materials and Devices 593Kuo-Chuan Ho, Hsin-Wei Chen, and Chih-Yu Hsu20.1 Introduction 59320.2 Structure Design of the PECDs 594References 620Appendix Definitions of Electrochromic Materials and Device Performance Parameters 623Roger J. Mortimer, Paul M. S. Monk, and David R. RosseinskyA.1 Contrast Ratio CR 623A.2 Response Time τ 624A.3 Write–Erase Efficiency 624A.4 Cycle Life 624A.5 Coloration Efficiency η 625References 625Index 627