About the editors Wolf Hamm (retired) has been a consultant to the Oils and Fats Industry, and is based in Harpenden, UK. Richard J. Hamilton is Emeritus Professor at Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Gijs Calliauw is Development Manager Modification at Desmet Ballestra, Belgium.

• List of Contributors xiiiList of Abbreviations xvIntroduction xvii1 Composition and Properties of Edible Oils 1Frank D. Gunstone1.1 Introduction 11.2 Components of natural fats 31.2.1 Fatty acids and glycerol esters 41.2.2 Phospholipids 71.2.3 Sterols 71.2.4 Tocols and other phenolic compounds 91.2.5 Chlorophyll 121.2.6 Hydrocarbons 131.2.6.1 Alkanes 131.2.6.2 Squalene 131.2.6.3 Carotenes 141.2.6.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 151.2.6.5 Contaminants and specifications 161.3 Fatty acid composition 161.4 Physical properties 191.4.1 Polymorphism, crystal structure and melting point 191.4.2 Density 211.4.3 Viscosity 221.4.4 Refractive index 221.4.5 Solubility of gases in oils 221.4.6 Other physical properties 241.5 Chemical properties 251.5.1 Hydrogenation 251.5.2 Oxidation 251.5.3 Autoxidation 261.5.4 Photooxidation 271.5.5 Decomposition of hydroperoxides to short-chain compounds 281.5.6 Antioxidants 281.5.6.1 Primary antioxidants 281.5.6.2 Secondary antioxidants 291.5.7 Stereomutation 311.5.8 Double-bond migration and cyclisation 311.5.9 Hydrolysis 311.5.10 Ester formation 321.5.11 Methanolysis 321.5.12 Glycerolysis 321.5.13 Interesterification 331.6 Effect of processing on food oil components 33References 342 Bulk Movement of Edible Oils 41Wolf Hamm2.1 Oil production and exports 412.2 Cargo damage 452.3 Quality of oils shipped 472.3.1 Palm oil 472.3.2 Soybean oil and other seed oils 472.3.3 Shipment of oils intended for production of FAMEs 482.4 Codex Alimentarius 482.5 Oil shipments: systems and regulations 492.5.1 The parcel tanker 492.5.2 Parcel tanker categories: IMO classification 502.5.3 Trade regulation: the role of the FOSFA and NIOP 502.6 Shore storage 522.7 Movement and storage costs 532.8 Refinery location 53Acknowledgement 53References 543 Production of Oils 55Philippe van Doosselaere3.1 Introduction 553.2 Seed handling and storage 563.2.1 Seed arrival 563.2.1.1 Seed weighing 563.2.1.2 Sampling 573.2.2 Seed reception and precleaning 573.2.3 Storage 583.3 Preparation of oilseeds 603.3.1 Reason for and purpose of preparation 603.3.2 Milling defect 613.4 Preparation of soybean 613.4.1 Cleaning and weighing 623.4.2 Cracking 643.4.3 Cooking–conditioning 653.4.4 Flaking 653.4.5 Expander 663.4.6 Soybean dehulling 683.4.6.1 Traditional process 683.4.6.2 Hot dehulling process 693.5 Preparation and pressing of rapeseed (canola) 693.5.1 Preparation 703.5.2 Cooking 713.5.3 Mechanical pressing 713.5.4 Press oil clarification 753.5.5 Press cake treatment 763.6 Preparation and pressing of sunflower seed 773.7 Full pressing 783.7.1 Cold pressing 793.7.2 Double pressing 803.7.3 Cake treatment 803.8 Oil from other seeds 813.8.1 Cottonseed 813.8.2 Corn germ 823.8.3 Coconut or copra oil 833.8.4 Linseed (flaxseed) 833.8.5 Safflower 843.8.6 Peanut (groundnut) 853.8.7 Rice bran 863.8.8 Sesame seed 873.9 Olive oil production 873.9.1 Pressing 893.9.2 Centrifugation 903.9.3 Olive pomace extraction 903.10 Palm oil production 913.10.1 Before reaching the mill 923.10.2 Sterilisation 933.10.3 Threshing 933.10.4 Pressing 943.10.5 Crude oil clarification 943.10.6 Oil drying 943.10.7 Fibre–fruit separation 953.10.8 Nut conditioning 953.10.9 Nut cracking installation 953.10.10 Kernel separation 953.10.11 Uses of secondary palm fruit products 953.10.11.1 Palm kernel meal 953.10.11.2 Fibres and shell 964 Solvent Extraction 97Timothy G. Kemper4.1 Introduction 974.2 Solvent extractor 994.2.1 Contact time 1004.2.2 Particle thickness 1014.2.3 Extractor temperature 1024.2.4 Miscella flux rate 1034.2.5 Number of miscella stages 1054.2.6 Solvent retention 1074.3 Meal desolventiser toaster 1074.3.1 Predesolventising trays 1084.3.2 Countercurrent trays 1114.3.3 Sparge tray 1114.4 Meal dryer cooler 1144.4.1 Steam-drying trays 1144.4.2 Air-drying trays 1144.4.3 Air-cooling trays 1164.5 Miscella distillation system 1174.6 Solvent recovery system 1194.7 Heat recovery 123References 1255 Edible Oil Refining: Current and Future Technologies 127Wim De Greyt5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Next-generation chemical refining with nanoneutralisation 1285.3 Enzymatic degumming: a missing link in the physical refining of soft oils? 1315.4 Bleaching: from single-stage colour removal to multistage adsorptive purification 1365.5 Deodorisation: much more than just a process for the removal of off-flavours 1415.6 Short-path distillation and supercritical processing: refining technologies for the future? 148References 1506 Oil Modification Processes 153Marc Kellens and Gijs Calliauw6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Hydrogenation 1546.2.1 Historical perspective 1546.2.2 Principle 1556.2.3 Process parameters 1576.2.3.1 Hydrogen pressure 1576.2.3.2 Temperature 1576.2.3.3 Catalyst 1576.2.4 Process design 1596.2.5 Future for hydrogenation technology 1636.2.5.1 Smarter combinations of the conventional technology 1636.2.5.2 Alternative catalysts 1636.2.5.3 Advanced process technology 1646.2.5.4 Summary 1666.3 Interesterification 1666.3.1 Historical perspective 1666.3.2 Principle 1676.3.3 Process parameters 1696.3.3.1 Oil quality 1696.3.3.2 Catalyst 1696.3.3.3 Oil losses 1706.3.4 Process design 1716.3.4.1 Processed product quality 1736.3.5 Future for interesterification technology 1746.4 Dry fractionation 1756.4.1 Historical perspective 1766.4.2 Principle 1776.4.3 Process parameters 1806.4.3.1 Cooling speed 1806.4.3.2 Agitation 1836.4.4 Process design 1836.4.4.1 Crystalliser design 1836.4.4.2 Filter design 1846.4.4.3 Plant design 1856.4.5 Future for fractionation technology 1886.4.5.1 Optimised crystalliser designs 1886.4.5.2 High-pressure filtrations 1896.4.5.3 Continuous fractional crystallisation 1906.4.5.4 Alternative multistage processes for specialty fats production 1916.4.6 Summary 195References 1957 Enzyme Processing 197David Cowan7.1 Introduction 1977.1.1 Objectives of enzyme processing 1987.2 Enzyme applications before oil refining 1997.2.1 Enzyme-assisted pressing 1997.2.2 Enzymatic degumming 2007.2.3 Enzymatic degumming process (phospholipase A1) 2027.2.4 Other phospholipases 2057.2.5 Oil recovery from gums 2057.2.6 Oil remediation 2067.3 Applications within edible oil modification 2087.3.1 Industrial-scale enzymatic interesterification 2097.3.2 Factors influencing enzyme working life 2117.3.3 Formulating with interesterified oils and fats 2157.3.4 Enzyme reactions for speciality fats 2167.3.5 Production of fats high in omega-3 fatty acids 2177.4 Improving processing sustainability through enzyme usage 219References 2218 Application of Edible Oils 223Arjen Bot and Eckhard Fl¨oter8.1 Introduction 2238.2 Physical chemistry of triacylglycerides 2258.3 Fat crystal networks 2288.4 Design of functional TAG compositions 2298.5 Application in fat-continuous emulsions (spreads) 2348.6 Application in water-continuous emulsions 2378.6.1 Mayonnaise and dressings 2378.6.2 Nondairy (fat) creams and spreads 2388.6.3 Ice cream 2398.7 Application in other fat-continuous products 2418.7.1 Baking fats 2418.7.2 Chocolate 2428.8 Conclusion 245References 2469 Quality and Food Safety Assurance and Control 251Mar Verhoeff and Gerrit van Duijn9.1 Introduction 2519.2 Analytical methods for measuring oil and fat composition 2529.3 Quality analyses 2529.3.1 Free fatty acids 2529.3.2 Peroxides 2549.3.3 Phosphorus 2549.3.4 Moisture and dirt 2559.3.5 Colour 2569.3.6 Metals 2569.3.7 Deterioration of Bleachability Index 2569.3.8 Tocopherols 2579.4 Supply chain contaminants 2579.4.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 2579.4.2 Pesticide residues 2589.4.3 Hydrocarbons of mineral origin 2599.4.4 Mycotoxins 2609.4.5 Other contaminants 2619.5 Quality and food safety assurance 2619.5.1 Crude oil analyses 2619.5.2 Crude oil risk matrix 2629.5.3 Process validation contaminant removal 2639.5.4 Oil processing link tables 2639.5.5 Food safety control points 264References 26610 Oil Processing Design Basics 267Gerrit van Duijn and Gerrit den Dekker10.1 Introduction 26710.2 Refining and modification process routes for most common oil types 26810.2.1 Process step definitions 26810.2.1.1 Degumming or water degumming (degummed) 26810.2.1.2 Deep degumming (ddg) 26810.2.1.3 Neutralisation (n) 26910.2.1.4 One-step bleaching (osb) 26910.2.1.5 Two-step bleaching (tsb) 26910.2.1.6 Deodorisation (d) 26910.2.1.7 Deodorisation/stripping (ds) 26910.2.1.8 Hydrogenation (h) 26910.2.1.9 Interesterification (ie) 27010.2.1.10 Dewaxing/winterisation (wi) 27010.2.1.11 Dry fractionation (df) 27010.2.1.12 Soapstock splitting (ss) 27010.2.2 Process routes for straight refined oils and fats 27010.2.3 Process routes pre- and post-hydrogenation 27210.2.4 Process routes pre- and post-IEC 27310.2.5 Process routes pre- and post-IEE 27410.2.6 Process routes in dry fractionation and dewaxing 27410.3 Oil processing block diagram design 27410.3.1 Standard oil processing block diagrams 27410.3.2 Batch and continuous processes 27510.3.2.1 Batch processes 27610.3.2.2 Continuous processes 27610.3.3 Refining of straight oils and fats 27710.3.3.1 Chemical refining 27710.3.3.2 Physical refining 27810.3.4 Refining combined with hydrogenation 27910.3.5 Refining combined with interesterification 27910.3.6 Refining and dewaxing 28110.3.7 Refining and fractionation 28110.3.8 Production of trans-free hard fats 28110.4 Effective equipment capacity 28310.4.1 Example: calculation of effective times for 5- and 7-days-a-week operations 28510.4.1.1 5 days a week 28510.4.1.2 7 days a week 28510.5 Tank park design rules 28510.5.1 Storage capacity 28510.5.2 Degradation during storage 28610.5.2.1 Hydrolysis 28710.5.2.2 Oxidation 28710.5.2.3 Intermixing with other oils 28810.5.2.4 Contamination by chemicals or impurities 28810.5.3 Tank design rules 28810.5.3.1 Tank shape and material of construction 28810.5.3.2 Tank heating 29010.5.3.3 Tank insulation 29010.5.3.4 Avoiding air contact 29010.5.4 Piping design rules 29110.5.4.1 Materials 29110.5.4.2 Insulation and heating 29110.5.4.3 Layout 29110.6 Design estimates for utilities consumptions and effluent production 29110.6.1 Introduction 29110.6.2 Utilities 29210.6.2.1 Heating 29210.6.2.2 Open steam and vacuum 29410.6.2.3 Electrical energy 29410.6.2.4 Cooling water 29510.6.2.5 Gases 29510.6.3 Effluent 29610.6.3.1 Liquid effluent 29610.6.3.2 Solid waste 29610.6.3.3 Exhaust gases 29810.6.4 Utility consumption and effluent data per process 29810.6.4.1 Storage 29810.6.4.2 Refining processes 29910.6.4.3 Modification processes 30110.7 Occupational safety by design 30110.7.1 Introduction 30110.7.2 General hazards 30310.7.3 Main occupational hazards of oil refining 30410.7.3.1 Neutralisation and soapsplitting 30410.7.3.2 Autoignition of spent bleaching earth 30510.7.3.3 Deodoriser safety 30610.7.4 Main occupational hazards of oil modification 30610.7.4.1 Hydrogenation safety hazards 30610.7.4.2 Safety of IEC 30810.7.5 Main occupational hazards of oil storage and handling 30810.7.5.1 Access to tanks and processing vessels 30810.7.5.2 Top access to tank cars 309References 310Further Reading 311Index 313

“For people involved with edible oils, either directly or indirectly, this book is a most valuable source of up?-to?-date facts and views. It is therefore highly recommended.”  (European Journal of Lipid Science & Technology, 1 July 2014)"This book will be an excellent addition to a lipid scientist's library as well as plant personnel, and food scientists. Members of academia will find this book useful in preparing graduate courses in food scienceand engineering." (G.R. List, Food Research International, 2013)

About the editors Wolf Hamm (retired) has been a consultant to the Oils and Fats Industry, and is based in Harpenden, UK. Richard J. Hamilton is Emeritus Professor at Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Gijs Calliauw is Development Manager Modification at Desmet Ballestra, Belgium.

• List of Contributors xiiiList of Abbreviations xvIntroduction xvii1 Composition and Properties of Edible Oils 1Frank D. Gunstone1.1 Introduction 11.2 Components of natural fats 31.2.1 Fatty acids and glycerol esters 41.2.2 Phospholipids 71.2.3 Sterols 71.2.4 Tocols and other phenolic compounds 91.2.5 Chlorophyll 121.2.6 Hydrocarbons 131.2.6.1 Alkanes 131.2.6.2 Squalene 131.2.6.3 Carotenes 141.2.6.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 151.2.6.5 Contaminants and specifications 161.3 Fatty acid composition 161.4 Physical properties 191.4.1 Polymorphism, crystal structure and melting point 191.4.2 Density 211.4.3 Viscosity 221.4.4 Refractive index 221.4.5 Solubility of gases in oils 221.4.6 Other physical properties 241.5 Chemical properties 251.5.1 Hydrogenation 251.5.2 Oxidation 251.5.3 Autoxidation 261.5.4 Photooxidation 271.5.5 Decomposition of hydroperoxides to short-chain compounds 281.5.6 Antioxidants 281.5.6.1 Primary antioxidants 281.5.6.2 Secondary antioxidants 291.5.7 Stereomutation 311.5.8 Double-bond migration and cyclisation 311.5.9 Hydrolysis 311.5.10 Ester formation 321.5.11 Methanolysis 321.5.12 Glycerolysis 321.5.13 Interesterification 331.6 Effect of processing on food oil components 33References 342 Bulk Movement of Edible Oils 41Wolf Hamm2.1 Oil production and exports 412.2 Cargo damage 452.3 Quality of oils shipped 472.3.1 Palm oil 472.3.2 Soybean oil and other seed oils 472.3.3 Shipment of oils intended for production of FAMEs 482.4 Codex Alimentarius 482.5 Oil shipments: systems and regulations 492.5.1 The parcel tanker 492.5.2 Parcel tanker categories: IMO classification 502.5.3 Trade regulation: the role of the FOSFA and NIOP 502.6 Shore storage 522.7 Movement and storage costs 532.8 Refinery location 53Acknowledgement 53References 543 Production of Oils 55Philippe van Doosselaere3.1 Introduction 553.2 Seed handling and storage 563.2.1 Seed arrival 563.2.1.1 Seed weighing 563.2.1.2 Sampling 573.2.2 Seed reception and precleaning 573.2.3 Storage 583.3 Preparation of oilseeds 603.3.1 Reason for and purpose of preparation 603.3.2 Milling defect 613.4 Preparation of soybean 613.4.1 Cleaning and weighing 623.4.2 Cracking 643.4.3 Cooking–conditioning 653.4.4 Flaking 653.4.5 Expander 663.4.6 Soybean dehulling 683.4.6.1 Traditional process 683.4.6.2 Hot dehulling process 693.5 Preparation and pressing of rapeseed (canola) 693.5.1 Preparation 703.5.2 Cooking 713.5.3 Mechanical pressing 713.5.4 Press oil clarification 753.5.5 Press cake treatment 763.6 Preparation and pressing of sunflower seed 773.7 Full pressing 783.7.1 Cold pressing 793.7.2 Double pressing 803.7.3 Cake treatment 803.8 Oil from other seeds 813.8.1 Cottonseed 813.8.2 Corn germ 823.8.3 Coconut or copra oil 833.8.4 Linseed (flaxseed) 833.8.5 Safflower 843.8.6 Peanut (groundnut) 853.8.7 Rice bran 863.8.8 Sesame seed 873.9 Olive oil production 873.9.1 Pressing 893.9.2 Centrifugation 903.9.3 Olive pomace extraction 903.10 Palm oil production 913.10.1 Before reaching the mill 923.10.2 Sterilisation 933.10.3 Threshing 933.10.4 Pressing 943.10.5 Crude oil clarification 943.10.6 Oil drying 943.10.7 Fibre–fruit separation 953.10.8 Nut conditioning 953.10.9 Nut cracking installation 953.10.10 Kernel separation 953.10.11 Uses of secondary palm fruit products 953.10.11.1 Palm kernel meal 953.10.11.2 Fibres and shell 964 Solvent Extraction 97Timothy G. Kemper4.1 Introduction 974.2 Solvent extractor 994.2.1 Contact time 1004.2.2 Particle thickness 1014.2.3 Extractor temperature 1024.2.4 Miscella flux rate 1034.2.5 Number of miscella stages 1054.2.6 Solvent retention 1074.3 Meal desolventiser toaster 1074.3.1 Predesolventising trays 1084.3.2 Countercurrent trays 1114.3.3 Sparge tray 1114.4 Meal dryer cooler 1144.4.1 Steam-drying trays 1144.4.2 Air-drying trays 1144.4.3 Air-cooling trays 1164.5 Miscella distillation system 1174.6 Solvent recovery system 1194.7 Heat recovery 123References 1255 Edible Oil Refining: Current and Future Technologies 127Wim De Greyt5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Next-generation chemical refining with nanoneutralisation 1285.3 Enzymatic degumming: a missing link in the physical refining of soft oils? 1315.4 Bleaching: from single-stage colour removal to multistage adsorptive purification 1365.5 Deodorisation: much more than just a process for the removal of off-flavours 1415.6 Short-path distillation and supercritical processing: refining technologies for the future? 148References 1506 Oil Modification Processes 153Marc Kellens and Gijs Calliauw6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Hydrogenation 1546.2.1 Historical perspective 1546.2.2 Principle 1556.2.3 Process parameters 1576.2.3.1 Hydrogen pressure 1576.2.3.2 Temperature 1576.2.3.3 Catalyst 1576.2.4 Process design 1596.2.5 Future for hydrogenation technology 1636.2.5.1 Smarter combinations of the conventional technology 1636.2.5.2 Alternative catalysts 1636.2.5.3 Advanced process technology 1646.2.5.4 Summary 1666.3 Interesterification 1666.3.1 Historical perspective 1666.3.2 Principle 1676.3.3 Process parameters 1696.3.3.1 Oil quality 1696.3.3.2 Catalyst 1696.3.3.3 Oil losses 1706.3.4 Process design 1716.3.4.1 Processed product quality 1736.3.5 Future for interesterification technology 1746.4 Dry fractionation 1756.4.1 Historical perspective 1766.4.2 Principle 1776.4.3 Process parameters 1806.4.3.1 Cooling speed 1806.4.3.2 Agitation 1836.4.4 Process design 1836.4.4.1 Crystalliser design 1836.4.4.2 Filter design 1846.4.4.3 Plant design 1856.4.5 Future for fractionation technology 1886.4.5.1 Optimised crystalliser designs 1886.4.5.2 High-pressure filtrations 1896.4.5.3 Continuous fractional crystallisation 1906.4.5.4 Alternative multistage processes for specialty fats production 1916.4.6 Summary 195References 1957 Enzyme Processing 197David Cowan7.1 Introduction 1977.1.1 Objectives of enzyme processing 1987.2 Enzyme applications before oil refining 1997.2.1 Enzyme-assisted pressing 1997.2.2 Enzymatic degumming 2007.2.3 Enzymatic degumming process (phospholipase A1) 2027.2.4 Other phospholipases 2057.2.5 Oil recovery from gums 2057.2.6 Oil remediation 2067.3 Applications within edible oil modification 2087.3.1 Industrial-scale enzymatic interesterification 2097.3.2 Factors influencing enzyme working life 2117.3.3 Formulating with interesterified oils and fats 2157.3.4 Enzyme reactions for speciality fats 2167.3.5 Production of fats high in omega-3 fatty acids 2177.4 Improving processing sustainability through enzyme usage 219References 2218 Application of Edible Oils 223Arjen Bot and Eckhard Fl¨oter8.1 Introduction 2238.2 Physical chemistry of triacylglycerides 2258.3 Fat crystal networks 2288.4 Design of functional TAG compositions 2298.5 Application in fat-continuous emulsions (spreads) 2348.6 Application in water-continuous emulsions 2378.6.1 Mayonnaise and dressings 2378.6.2 Nondairy (fat) creams and spreads 2388.6.3 Ice cream 2398.7 Application in other fat-continuous products 2418.7.1 Baking fats 2418.7.2 Chocolate 2428.8 Conclusion 245References 2469 Quality and Food Safety Assurance and Control 251Mar Verhoeff and Gerrit van Duijn9.1 Introduction 2519.2 Analytical methods for measuring oil and fat composition 2529.3 Quality analyses 2529.3.1 Free fatty acids 2529.3.2 Peroxides 2549.3.3 Phosphorus 2549.3.4 Moisture and dirt 2559.3.5 Colour 2569.3.6 Metals 2569.3.7 Deterioration of Bleachability Index 2569.3.8 Tocopherols 2579.4 Supply chain contaminants 2579.4.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 2579.4.2 Pesticide residues 2589.4.3 Hydrocarbons of mineral origin 2599.4.4 Mycotoxins 2609.4.5 Other contaminants 2619.5 Quality and food safety assurance 2619.5.1 Crude oil analyses 2619.5.2 Crude oil risk matrix 2629.5.3 Process validation contaminant removal 2639.5.4 Oil processing link tables 2639.5.5 Food safety control points 264References 26610 Oil Processing Design Basics 267Gerrit van Duijn and Gerrit den Dekker10.1 Introduction 26710.2 Refining and modification process routes for most common oil types 26810.2.1 Process step definitions 26810.2.1.1 Degumming or water degumming (degummed) 26810.2.1.2 Deep degumming (ddg) 26810.2.1.3 Neutralisation (n) 26910.2.1.4 One-step bleaching (osb) 26910.2.1.5 Two-step bleaching (tsb) 26910.2.1.6 Deodorisation (d) 26910.2.1.7 Deodorisation/stripping (ds) 26910.2.1.8 Hydrogenation (h) 26910.2.1.9 Interesterification (ie) 27010.2.1.10 Dewaxing/winterisation (wi) 27010.2.1.11 Dry fractionation (df) 27010.2.1.12 Soapstock splitting (ss) 27010.2.2 Process routes for straight refined oils and fats 27010.2.3 Process routes pre- and post-hydrogenation 27210.2.4 Process routes pre- and post-IEC 27310.2.5 Process routes pre- and post-IEE 27410.2.6 Process routes in dry fractionation and dewaxing 27410.3 Oil processing block diagram design 27410.3.1 Standard oil processing block diagrams 27410.3.2 Batch and continuous processes 27510.3.2.1 Batch processes 27610.3.2.2 Continuous processes 27610.3.3 Refining of straight oils and fats 27710.3.3.1 Chemical refining 27710.3.3.2 Physical refining 27810.3.4 Refining combined with hydrogenation 27910.3.5 Refining combined with interesterification 27910.3.6 Refining and dewaxing 28110.3.7 Refining and fractionation 28110.3.8 Production of trans-free hard fats 28110.4 Effective equipment capacity 28310.4.1 Example: calculation of effective times for 5- and 7-days-a-week operations 28510.4.1.1 5 days a week 28510.4.1.2 7 days a week 28510.5 Tank park design rules 28510.5.1 Storage capacity 28510.5.2 Degradation during storage 28610.5.2.1 Hydrolysis 28710.5.2.2 Oxidation 28710.5.2.3 Intermixing with other oils 28810.5.2.4 Contamination by chemicals or impurities 28810.5.3 Tank design rules 28810.5.3.1 Tank shape and material of construction 28810.5.3.2 Tank heating 29010.5.3.3 Tank insulation 29010.5.3.4 Avoiding air contact 29010.5.4 Piping design rules 29110.5.4.1 Materials 29110.5.4.2 Insulation and heating 29110.5.4.3 Layout 29110.6 Design estimates for utilities consumptions and effluent production 29110.6.1 Introduction 29110.6.2 Utilities 29210.6.2.1 Heating 29210.6.2.2 Open steam and vacuum 29410.6.2.3 Electrical energy 29410.6.2.4 Cooling water 29510.6.2.5 Gases 29510.6.3 Effluent 29610.6.3.1 Liquid effluent 29610.6.3.2 Solid waste 29610.6.3.3 Exhaust gases 29810.6.4 Utility consumption and effluent data per process 29810.6.4.1 Storage 29810.6.4.2 Refining processes 29910.6.4.3 Modification processes 30110.7 Occupational safety by design 30110.7.1 Introduction 30110.7.2 General hazards 30310.7.3 Main occupational hazards of oil refining 30410.7.3.1 Neutralisation and soapsplitting 30410.7.3.2 Autoignition of spent bleaching earth 30510.7.3.3 Deodoriser safety 30610.7.4 Main occupational hazards of oil modification 30610.7.4.1 Hydrogenation safety hazards 30610.7.4.2 Safety of IEC 30810.7.5 Main occupational hazards of oil storage and handling 30810.7.5.1 Access to tanks and processing vessels 30810.7.5.2 Top access to tank cars 309References 310Further Reading 311Index 313

“For people involved with edible oils, either directly or indirectly, this book is a most valuable source of up?-to?-date facts and views. It is therefore highly recommended.”  (European Journal of Lipid Science & Technology, 1 July 2014)"This book will be an excellent addition to a lipid scientist's library as well as plant personnel, and food scientists. Members of academia will find this book useful in preparing graduate courses in food scienceand engineering." (G.R. List, Food Research International, 2013)

About the editors Wolf Hamm (retired) has been a consultant to the Oils and Fats Industry, and is based in Harpenden, UK. Richard J. Hamilton is Emeritus Professor at Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Gijs Calliauw is Development Manager Modification at Desmet Ballestra, Belgium.

• List of Contributors xiiiList of Abbreviations xvIntroduction xvii1 Composition and Properties of Edible Oils 1Frank D. Gunstone1.1 Introduction 11.2 Components of natural fats 31.2.1 Fatty acids and glycerol esters 41.2.2 Phospholipids 71.2.3 Sterols 71.2.4 Tocols and other phenolic compounds 91.2.5 Chlorophyll 121.2.6 Hydrocarbons 131.2.6.1 Alkanes 131.2.6.2 Squalene 131.2.6.3 Carotenes 141.2.6.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 151.2.6.5 Contaminants and specifications 161.3 Fatty acid composition 161.4 Physical properties 191.4.1 Polymorphism, crystal structure and melting point 191.4.2 Density 211.4.3 Viscosity 221.4.4 Refractive index 221.4.5 Solubility of gases in oils 221.4.6 Other physical properties 241.5 Chemical properties 251.5.1 Hydrogenation 251.5.2 Oxidation 251.5.3 Autoxidation 261.5.4 Photooxidation 271.5.5 Decomposition of hydroperoxides to short-chain compounds 281.5.6 Antioxidants 281.5.6.1 Primary antioxidants 281.5.6.2 Secondary antioxidants 291.5.7 Stereomutation 311.5.8 Double-bond migration and cyclisation 311.5.9 Hydrolysis 311.5.10 Ester formation 321.5.11 Methanolysis 321.5.12 Glycerolysis 321.5.13 Interesterification 331.6 Effect of processing on food oil components 33References 342 Bulk Movement of Edible Oils 41Wolf Hamm2.1 Oil production and exports 412.2 Cargo damage 452.3 Quality of oils shipped 472.3.1 Palm oil 472.3.2 Soybean oil and other seed oils 472.3.3 Shipment of oils intended for production of FAMEs 482.4 Codex Alimentarius 482.5 Oil shipments: systems and regulations 492.5.1 The parcel tanker 492.5.2 Parcel tanker categories: IMO classification 502.5.3 Trade regulation: the role of the FOSFA and NIOP 502.6 Shore storage 522.7 Movement and storage costs 532.8 Refinery location 53Acknowledgement 53References 543 Production of Oils 55Philippe van Doosselaere3.1 Introduction 553.2 Seed handling and storage 563.2.1 Seed arrival 563.2.1.1 Seed weighing 563.2.1.2 Sampling 573.2.2 Seed reception and precleaning 573.2.3 Storage 583.3 Preparation of oilseeds 603.3.1 Reason for and purpose of preparation 603.3.2 Milling defect 613.4 Preparation of soybean 613.4.1 Cleaning and weighing 623.4.2 Cracking 643.4.3 Cooking–conditioning 653.4.4 Flaking 653.4.5 Expander 663.4.6 Soybean dehulling 683.4.6.1 Traditional process 683.4.6.2 Hot dehulling process 693.5 Preparation and pressing of rapeseed (canola) 693.5.1 Preparation 703.5.2 Cooking 713.5.3 Mechanical pressing 713.5.4 Press oil clarification 753.5.5 Press cake treatment 763.6 Preparation and pressing of sunflower seed 773.7 Full pressing 783.7.1 Cold pressing 793.7.2 Double pressing 803.7.3 Cake treatment 803.8 Oil from other seeds 813.8.1 Cottonseed 813.8.2 Corn germ 823.8.3 Coconut or copra oil 833.8.4 Linseed (flaxseed) 833.8.5 Safflower 843.8.6 Peanut (groundnut) 853.8.7 Rice bran 863.8.8 Sesame seed 873.9 Olive oil production 873.9.1 Pressing 893.9.2 Centrifugation 903.9.3 Olive pomace extraction 903.10 Palm oil production 913.10.1 Before reaching the mill 923.10.2 Sterilisation 933.10.3 Threshing 933.10.4 Pressing 943.10.5 Crude oil clarification 943.10.6 Oil drying 943.10.7 Fibre–fruit separation 953.10.8 Nut conditioning 953.10.9 Nut cracking installation 953.10.10 Kernel separation 953.10.11 Uses of secondary palm fruit products 953.10.11.1 Palm kernel meal 953.10.11.2 Fibres and shell 964 Solvent Extraction 97Timothy G. Kemper4.1 Introduction 974.2 Solvent extractor 994.2.1 Contact time 1004.2.2 Particle thickness 1014.2.3 Extractor temperature 1024.2.4 Miscella flux rate 1034.2.5 Number of miscella stages 1054.2.6 Solvent retention 1074.3 Meal desolventiser toaster 1074.3.1 Predesolventising trays 1084.3.2 Countercurrent trays 1114.3.3 Sparge tray 1114.4 Meal dryer cooler 1144.4.1 Steam-drying trays 1144.4.2 Air-drying trays 1144.4.3 Air-cooling trays 1164.5 Miscella distillation system 1174.6 Solvent recovery system 1194.7 Heat recovery 123References 1255 Edible Oil Refining: Current and Future Technologies 127Wim De Greyt5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Next-generation chemical refining with nanoneutralisation 1285.3 Enzymatic degumming: a missing link in the physical refining of soft oils? 1315.4 Bleaching: from single-stage colour removal to multistage adsorptive purification 1365.5 Deodorisation: much more than just a process for the removal of off-flavours 1415.6 Short-path distillation and supercritical processing: refining technologies for the future? 148References 1506 Oil Modification Processes 153Marc Kellens and Gijs Calliauw6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Hydrogenation 1546.2.1 Historical perspective 1546.2.2 Principle 1556.2.3 Process parameters 1576.2.3.1 Hydrogen pressure 1576.2.3.2 Temperature 1576.2.3.3 Catalyst 1576.2.4 Process design 1596.2.5 Future for hydrogenation technology 1636.2.5.1 Smarter combinations of the conventional technology 1636.2.5.2 Alternative catalysts 1636.2.5.3 Advanced process technology 1646.2.5.4 Summary 1666.3 Interesterification 1666.3.1 Historical perspective 1666.3.2 Principle 1676.3.3 Process parameters 1696.3.3.1 Oil quality 1696.3.3.2 Catalyst 1696.3.3.3 Oil losses 1706.3.4 Process design 1716.3.4.1 Processed product quality 1736.3.5 Future for interesterification technology 1746.4 Dry fractionation 1756.4.1 Historical perspective 1766.4.2 Principle 1776.4.3 Process parameters 1806.4.3.1 Cooling speed 1806.4.3.2 Agitation 1836.4.4 Process design 1836.4.4.1 Crystalliser design 1836.4.4.2 Filter design 1846.4.4.3 Plant design 1856.4.5 Future for fractionation technology 1886.4.5.1 Optimised crystalliser designs 1886.4.5.2 High-pressure filtrations 1896.4.5.3 Continuous fractional crystallisation 1906.4.5.4 Alternative multistage processes for specialty fats production 1916.4.6 Summary 195References 1957 Enzyme Processing 197David Cowan7.1 Introduction 1977.1.1 Objectives of enzyme processing 1987.2 Enzyme applications before oil refining 1997.2.1 Enzyme-assisted pressing 1997.2.2 Enzymatic degumming 2007.2.3 Enzymatic degumming process (phospholipase A1) 2027.2.4 Other phospholipases 2057.2.5 Oil recovery from gums 2057.2.6 Oil remediation 2067.3 Applications within edible oil modification 2087.3.1 Industrial-scale enzymatic interesterification 2097.3.2 Factors influencing enzyme working life 2117.3.3 Formulating with interesterified oils and fats 2157.3.4 Enzyme reactions for speciality fats 2167.3.5 Production of fats high in omega-3 fatty acids 2177.4 Improving processing sustainability through enzyme usage 219References 2218 Application of Edible Oils 223Arjen Bot and Eckhard Fl¨oter8.1 Introduction 2238.2 Physical chemistry of triacylglycerides 2258.3 Fat crystal networks 2288.4 Design of functional TAG compositions 2298.5 Application in fat-continuous emulsions (spreads) 2348.6 Application in water-continuous emulsions 2378.6.1 Mayonnaise and dressings 2378.6.2 Nondairy (fat) creams and spreads 2388.6.3 Ice cream 2398.7 Application in other fat-continuous products 2418.7.1 Baking fats 2418.7.2 Chocolate 2428.8 Conclusion 245References 2469 Quality and Food Safety Assurance and Control 251Mar Verhoeff and Gerrit van Duijn9.1 Introduction 2519.2 Analytical methods for measuring oil and fat composition 2529.3 Quality analyses 2529.3.1 Free fatty acids 2529.3.2 Peroxides 2549.3.3 Phosphorus 2549.3.4 Moisture and dirt 2559.3.5 Colour 2569.3.6 Metals 2569.3.7 Deterioration of Bleachability Index 2569.3.8 Tocopherols 2579.4 Supply chain contaminants 2579.4.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 2579.4.2 Pesticide residues 2589.4.3 Hydrocarbons of mineral origin 2599.4.4 Mycotoxins 2609.4.5 Other contaminants 2619.5 Quality and food safety assurance 2619.5.1 Crude oil analyses 2619.5.2 Crude oil risk matrix 2629.5.3 Process validation contaminant removal 2639.5.4 Oil processing link tables 2639.5.5 Food safety control points 264References 26610 Oil Processing Design Basics 267Gerrit van Duijn and Gerrit den Dekker10.1 Introduction 26710.2 Refining and modification process routes for most common oil types 26810.2.1 Process step definitions 26810.2.1.1 Degumming or water degumming (degummed) 26810.2.1.2 Deep degumming (ddg) 26810.2.1.3 Neutralisation (n) 26910.2.1.4 One-step bleaching (osb) 26910.2.1.5 Two-step bleaching (tsb) 26910.2.1.6 Deodorisation (d) 26910.2.1.7 Deodorisation/stripping (ds) 26910.2.1.8 Hydrogenation (h) 26910.2.1.9 Interesterification (ie) 27010.2.1.10 Dewaxing/winterisation (wi) 27010.2.1.11 Dry fractionation (df) 27010.2.1.12 Soapstock splitting (ss) 27010.2.2 Process routes for straight refined oils and fats 27010.2.3 Process routes pre- and post-hydrogenation 27210.2.4 Process routes pre- and post-IEC 27310.2.5 Process routes pre- and post-IEE 27410.2.6 Process routes in dry fractionation and dewaxing 27410.3 Oil processing block diagram design 27410.3.1 Standard oil processing block diagrams 27410.3.2 Batch and continuous processes 27510.3.2.1 Batch processes 27610.3.2.2 Continuous processes 27610.3.3 Refining of straight oils and fats 27710.3.3.1 Chemical refining 27710.3.3.2 Physical refining 27810.3.4 Refining combined with hydrogenation 27910.3.5 Refining combined with interesterification 27910.3.6 Refining and dewaxing 28110.3.7 Refining and fractionation 28110.3.8 Production of trans-free hard fats 28110.4 Effective equipment capacity 28310.4.1 Example: calculation of effective times for 5- and 7-days-a-week operations 28510.4.1.1 5 days a week 28510.4.1.2 7 days a week 28510.5 Tank park design rules 28510.5.1 Storage capacity 28510.5.2 Degradation during storage 28610.5.2.1 Hydrolysis 28710.5.2.2 Oxidation 28710.5.2.3 Intermixing with other oils 28810.5.2.4 Contamination by chemicals or impurities 28810.5.3 Tank design rules 28810.5.3.1 Tank shape and material of construction 28810.5.3.2 Tank heating 29010.5.3.3 Tank insulation 29010.5.3.4 Avoiding air contact 29010.5.4 Piping design rules 29110.5.4.1 Materials 29110.5.4.2 Insulation and heating 29110.5.4.3 Layout 29110.6 Design estimates for utilities consumptions and effluent production 29110.6.1 Introduction 29110.6.2 Utilities 29210.6.2.1 Heating 29210.6.2.2 Open steam and vacuum 29410.6.2.3 Electrical energy 29410.6.2.4 Cooling water 29510.6.2.5 Gases 29510.6.3 Effluent 29610.6.3.1 Liquid effluent 29610.6.3.2 Solid waste 29610.6.3.3 Exhaust gases 29810.6.4 Utility consumption and effluent data per process 29810.6.4.1 Storage 29810.6.4.2 Refining processes 29910.6.4.3 Modification processes 30110.7 Occupational safety by design 30110.7.1 Introduction 30110.7.2 General hazards 30310.7.3 Main occupational hazards of oil refining 30410.7.3.1 Neutralisation and soapsplitting 30410.7.3.2 Autoignition of spent bleaching earth 30510.7.3.3 Deodoriser safety 30610.7.4 Main occupational hazards of oil modification 30610.7.4.1 Hydrogenation safety hazards 30610.7.4.2 Safety of IEC 30810.7.5 Main occupational hazards of oil storage and handling 30810.7.5.1 Access to tanks and processing vessels 30810.7.5.2 Top access to tank cars 309References 310Further Reading 311Index 313

“For people involved with edible oils, either directly or indirectly, this book is a most valuable source of up?-to?-date facts and views. It is therefore highly recommended.”  (European Journal of Lipid Science & Technology, 1 July 2014)"This book will be an excellent addition to a lipid scientist's library as well as plant personnel, and food scientists. Members of academia will find this book useful in preparing graduate courses in food scienceand engineering." (G.R. List, Food Research International, 2013)