Ecology of Urban Environments

Kirsten M. Parris, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.

• Foreword xi Preface xiiiAcknowledgements xv1 Introduction 11.1 Setting the scene 11.2 What is urban ecology? 11.3 Why is urban ecology interesting? 21.3.1 Urban environments are extensive and growing 31.3.2 Urban environments have inherent ecological interest 61.3.3 Urban environments are ideal for testing and developing ecological theory 61.3.4 The nature of urban environments affects human health and wellbeing 71.3.5 Urban environments are important for conserving biological diversity 81.4 The aims of this book 10Study questions 10References 102 Urban environments 152.1 Introduction 152.2 Primary biophysical processes associated with urbanization 192.2.1 Removal of existing vegetation 202.2.2 Construction of buildings, roads and other urban infrastructure 212.2.3 Replacement of permeable with impermeable surfaces 222.2.4 Reduction in the area of open space 222.2.5 Modification or destruction of aquatic habitats 242.2.6 Production of pollution and waste 252.3 Secondary biophysical processes associated with urbanization 282.3.1 Habitat loss, fragmentation and isolation 282.3.2 Climatic changes 282.3.3 Altered hydrological regimes 292.3.4 Pollution of air, water and soil 292.3.5 Altered noise and light regimes 302.4 Stochasticity in urban environments 312.5 Summary 32Study questions 33References 333 Population- and species-level responses to urbanization 413.1 Introduction 413.2 Responses to the secondary biophysical processes of urbanization 433.2.1 Habitat loss, fragmentation and isolation 433.2.2 Climatic changes 483.2.3 Altered hydrological regimes 493.2.4 Pollution of air, water and soil 503.2.5 Altered noise and light regimes 533.3 Biological introductions and invasions 573.3.1 Plants and fungi 573.3.2 Animals 593.4 Human disturbance 633.5 Stochastic effects on populations in urban environments 653.6 Summary 66Study questions 66References 674 Community-level responses to urbanization 814.1 Introduction 814.2 Selection: niche theories in urban ecology 844.2.1 The ecological niche and the environmental gradient 844.2.2 Habitat models 904.2.3 Ecological guilds and resource-competition models 944.3 Ecological drift: modelling stochasticity in urban communities 974.4 Dispersal: the movement of individuals through space 994.5 Diversification: the evolution of new lineages in urban environments 1024.6 Summary 104Study questions 105References 1055 Ecosystem-level responses to urbanization 1145.1 Introduction 1145.2 Carbon 1165.2.1 Introduction to the carbon cycle 1165.2.2 Effects of urbanization on the carbon cycle 1195.2.3 Mitigation strategies 1225.3 Water 1275.3.1 Introduction to the water cycle 1275.3.2 Effects of urbanization on the water cycle 1275.3.3 Mitigation strategies 1295.4 The nitrogen cycle 1315.4.1 Effects of urbanization on the nitrogen cycle 1325.4.2 Mitigation strategies 1355.5 Summary 136Study questions 136References 1376 The urban ecology of humans 1466.1 Introduction 1466.2 The urban form 1506.2.1 Urban parks and open space 1506.2.2 Urban sprawl and car dependence 1566.2.3 Neighbourhood disadvantage and neighbourhood disorder 1576.3 Pollution and waste 1586.3.1 Outdoor air pollution 1606.3.2 Indoor air pollution 1616.4 Climatic changes in urban environments 1626.5 Health inequities in the world’s cities 1636.6 Summary 164Study questions 165References 1657 Conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem services in cities 1757.1 Introduction 1757.2 Strategies for conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem services in cities 1777.2.1 Integrate urban ecology with urban planning and design 1777.2.2 Protect biodiverse landscape features and important biophysical assets 1807.2.3 Grow the green city 1827.2.4 Maintain or re-establish landscape connectivity 1857.2.5 Use small spaces 1877.3 Novel habitats, novel ecosystems 1907.4 Summary 192Study questions 192References 1938 Summary and future directions 2048.1 Introduction 2048.2 Do we need a new theory of urban ecology? 2048.2.1 The complexity of urban ecosystems 2058.2.2 The human domination of urban ecosystems 2068.2.3 The uniqueness of urban ecosystems 2068.3 The definition and scope of urban ecology 2078.4 Do we need a new theory of urban science? 2088.5 Future directions 209Study questions 210References 211Index 214