Ecoacoustics

EDITED BYALMO FARINA is Professor of Ecology, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, Urbino University, Italy. He is interested in developing theories in landscape ecology and ecoacoustics. He has published more than 270 reports, articles and books on zoology, eco-ethology, bird community ecology, landscape ecology, landscape changes, rural landscape modification, eco-semiotics, code biology, ecoacoustics, soundscape ecology, and ecological theories. STUART H. GAGE is Professor Emeritus, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA. Stuart retired after about 30 years as Professor of Entomology. He received the University Distinguished Faculty Award and the University Outreach and Engagement Campus Fellow at Michigan State University. Stuart continues as Director of the Remote Environmental Assessment Laboratory. His current research focuses on application of ecological sensors, analysis of acoustic sensor observations and cyber infrastructure and he collaborates with colleagues in all realms of acoustics. The study of ecological acoustics has enabled Stuart to record the soundscape in many places using automated sensors. Many of these recordings are analyzed, stored, and are publicly accessible in a digital acoustics library (http://www.real.msu.edu).

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xv1 Ecoacoustics: A New Science 1Almo Farina and Stuart H. Gage1.1 Ecoacoustics as a New Science 11.2 Characteristics of a Sound 11.3 Sound and its Importance 21.4 Ecoacoustics and Digital Sensors 31.5 Ecoacoustics Attributes 31.5.1 Population Census 41.5.2 Biological Diversity 41.5.3 Habitat Health 41.5.4 Time of Arrival/Departure of Migratory Species 41.5.5 Diurnal Change 51.5.6 Seasonal Change 51.5.7 Competition for Frequency 51.5.8 Trophic Interactions 51.5.9 Disturbance 51.5.10 Sounds of the Landscape and People 61.6 Ecoacoustics and Ecosystem Management 61.7 Quantification of a Sound 71.7.1 Species Identification 71.7.2 Acoustic Indices 71.8 Archiving Ecoacoustics Recordings 81.9 Ecological Forecasting 9References 92 The Duality of Sounds: Ambient and Communication 13Almo Farina and Stuart H. Gage2.1 Introduction 132.2 Vegetation and Ecoacoustics 142.2.1 Vegetation Quality and Ecoacoustics 152.2.2 Soundscape Indices and Biodiversity 152.2.3 Applications of Remote Sensing of Vegetation and Ecoacoustics 162.3 Acoustic Resources, Umwelten, and Eco-fields 172.4 Sounds as Biological Codes 202.5 Sound as a Compass for Navigation 212.6 Geophonies from Sacred Sites – How to Incorporate Archeoacoustics into Ecoacoustics 222.6.1 The Characteristics of Geophonies 232.6.2 Geophonies and Sacred Sites 232.6.3 Human Versus Other Animals’ Perception of Sound: The Role of Archeoacoustics 24References 243 The Role of Sound in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Three Case Examples from Michigan, USA 31Stuart H. Gage and Almo Farina3.1 Introduction 313.2 C1 Visualization of the Soundscape at Ted Black Woods, Okemos, Michigan during May 2016 313.2.1 C1 Background 313.2.2 C1 Objectives 323.2.3 C1 Methods 323.2.3.1 C1 Soundscape Metrics 333.2.3.2 C1 Weather Factors Affecting Sounds 333.2.4 C1 Results 333.2.4.1 C1 Patterns of Soundscape Power for Six Frequency Intervals 333.2.4.2 C1 Patterns of Soundscape Indices 373.2.4.3 C1 Wind Patterns During May 2016 373.2.4.4 C1 Rain Patterns During May 2016 373.2.4.5 C1 Spectrogram Patterns 413.2.5 C1 Discussion 423.3 C2 Implications for Climate Change – Detecting First Call of the Spring Peeper 443.3.1 C2 Background 443.3.2 C2 Methods 443.3.3 C2 Results 453.3.4 C2 Discussion 473.4 C3 Disturbance in Terrestrial Systems: Tree Harvest Impacts on the Soundscape 493.4.1 C3 Background 493.4.2 C3 Methods 513.4.3 C3 Results 523.4.3.1 C3 Changes in the Soundscape 523.4.3.2 C3 Statistical Influence of Forest Harvest 553.4.4 C3 Discussion 55References 594 The Role of Sound in the Aquatic Environment 61Francesco Filiciotto and Giuseppa Buscaino4.1 Overview on Underwater Sound Propagation 614.1.1 Sound Speed in the Sea 614.1.2 Transmission Loss 614.1.3 Deep and Shallow Sound Channel and Animal Communication 624.2 Sound Emissions and their Ecological Role in Marine Vertebrates and Invertebrates 634.2.1 Marine Mammals 634.2.2 Fish 644.2.3 Crustaceans 654.3 Impacts of Anthropogenic Noise in Aquatic Environments 674.3.1 Main Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in the Sea 674.3.2 The Effects of Anthropogenic Noise on Marine Organisms 684.3.2.1 Acoustic Masking and Damage to Hearing System of Marine Organisms 684.3.2.2 Biochemical Impacts and Stress Responses 694.3.2.3 Behavior Alterations 70References 715 The Acoustic Chorus and its Ecological Significance 81Almo Farina and Maria Ceraulo5.1 Introduction 815.2 Time of Chorus 825.3 The Chorus Hypothesis 865.4 Choruses in Birds 875.5 Choruses in Amphibians 875.6 Choruses in the Marine Environment 885.7 Conclusions and Discussion 89References 896 The Ecological Effects of Noise on Species and Communities 95Almo Farina6.1 Introduction 956.2 The Nature of Noise 966.3 Natural Sources of Noise 966.4 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise 976.5 Effects of Noise on the Animal World 976.6 How Animals Neutralize the Effect of Noise 1006.6.1 Changing Amplitude 1006.6.2 Changing Frequency 1006.6.3 Changing Signal Redundancy 1016.6.4 Changing Behavior 1016.7 Noise in Marine and Freshwater Systems 1016.8 Conclusions 102References 1037 Biodiversity Assessment in Temperate Biomes using Ecoacoustics 109Almo Farina and Nadia Pieretti7.1 Introduction 1097.2 Sound as Proxy for Biodiversity 1107.3 Methods and Application of Ecoacoustics 1117.4 Acoustic Communities as a Proxy for Biodiversity 1137.5 Problems and Open Questions 1147.6 Ecoacoustic Events: Concepts and Procedures 1167.7 Conclusion 122References 1228 Biodiversity Assessment in Tropical Biomes using Ecoacoustics: Linking Soundscape to Forest Structure in a Human-dominated Tropical Dry Forest in Southern Madagascar 129Lyndsay Rankin and Anne C. Axel8.1 Introduction 1298.2 Methods 1318.2.1 Study Area 1318.2.2 Forest Sampling 1328.2.3 Soundscape Survey 1338.2.4 Acoustic Index 1338.2.5 Mixed Model Analysis 1348.3 Results 1358.3.1 Acoustic Index by Season 1358.3.2 Mixed Model Analyses 1378.4 Discussion 137Acknowledgments 141References 1429 Biodiversity Assessment and Environmental Monitoring in Freshwater and Marine Biomes using Ecoacoustics 145Denise Risch and Susan E. Parks9.1 Introduction 1459.2 Freshwater Habitats 1479.2.1 Rivers 1479.2.1.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1479.2.1.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment Using Sound in River Habitats 1489.2.1.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in River Systems 1489.2.2 Lakes and Ponds 1489.2.2.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1499.2.2.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment Using Sound in Lakes and Ponds 1499.2.2.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in Lakes and Ponds 1499.3 Marine Neritic Habitats 1509.3.1 Estuaries and Coastal Habitats 1509.3.1.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1509.3.1.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment Using Sound in Estuarine and Coastal Habitats 1509.3.1.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in Estuarine and Coastal Habitats 1529.3.2 Coral Reefs 1529.3.2.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1529.3.2.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment Using Sound in Coral Reef Environments 1539.3.2.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in Coral Reef Environments 1539.4 Marine Oceanic Habitats 1539.4.1 Open Ocean and Deep Sea Habitats 1539.4.1.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1549.4.1.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment Using Sound in the Open Ocean 1549.4.1.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in the Open Ocean 1549.4.2 Polar Oceans 1559.4.2.1 Remote Monitoring of Biotic Signals in the Environment 1559.4.2.2 Remote Monitoring of the Environment with Sound in Polar Regions 1559.4.2.3 Anthropogenic Sources of Noise in the Polar Regions 1569.5 Summary and Future Directions 156References 15810 Integrating Biophony into Biodiversity Measurement and Assessment 169Brian Michael Napoletano10.1 Introduction 16910.1.1 Biodiversity and its Parameterization 17010.2 Biological Information in the Soundscape 17110.2.1 Physiology: Sound Production and Detection 17410.2.2 Communication: Medium and Context 17610.2.3 Coordination: Evolution of the Biophony 17810.2.4 Adaptation: Mechanization of the Soundscape 18010.3 Ecoacoustics in Biodiversity Assessment 18210.3.1 Developing a Soundscape Monitoring Network 18210.3.2 Acoustic Data Processing and Management 18310.4 Conclusion 184References 18511 Landscape Patterns and Soundscape Processes 193Almo Farina and Susan Fuller11.1 An Introduction to Landscape Ecology (Theories and Applications) 19311.1.1 Patch Size, Shape, and Isolation 19311.1.2 Patch‐Matrix Context 19411.2 Relationship Between Landscape Ecology and Soundscape Ecology: A Semantic Approach 19511.2.1 The Contribution of Landscape Ecology to the Development of Ecoacoustics 19611.2.2 Acoustic Heterogeneity in a Landscape Across Space and Time 19711.3 Acoustic Community and Landscape Mosaics 19911.4 Ecoacoustics in a Changing Landscape 20211.5 Conclusion 203References 20412 Connecting Soundscapes to Landscapes: Modeling the Spatial Distribution of Sound 211Timothy C. Mullet12.1 Introduction 21112.2 Conceptualizing Soundscapes in Space and Time 21112.3 Capturing Soundscapes in Space and Time 21212.4 Sound Metrics and Interpreting Nature 21312.5 A Soundscape Metric for Modeling 21512.6 Discriminating the Components of a Soundscape 21612.7 Generating a Predictive Soundscape Model 21712.8 Conclusion 219Disclaimer 221References 22113 Soil Acoustics 225Marisol A. Quintanilla‐Tornel13.1 Introduction 22513.2 Soil Insect Acoustics 22613.3 Compost Activating Agent Acoustics 22613.4 Soil Aggregate Slaking Acoustics 22713.5 Conclusion 230References 23114 Fundamentals of Soundscape Conservation 235Gianni Pavan14.1 Introduction 23514.2 Nature Sounds in Science and Education 23814.3 The Role of Sound Libraries 24214.4 Noise Pollution, the Acoustic Habitat, and the Biology of Disturbance 24314.5 Soundscapes, Nature Conservation, and Public Awareness 24414.6 Marine Soundscapes 24514.6.1 Ship Noise 24614.7 Conclusion 25114.7.1 Terrestrial Soundscapes 25214.7.2 Marine and Aquatic Soundscapes 252Acknowledgment 252References 25215 Urban Acoustics: Heartbeat of Lansing, Michigan, USA 259Stuart H. Gage and Wooyeong Joo15.1 Introduction 25915.2 Objectives 26015.3 Methods 26115.3.1 Sampling Design 26115.3.2 Recording at Sample Sites 26215.3.3 Data Conversion 26215.3.4 Data Processing 26215.4 Results 26415.4.1 The NDSI 26415.4.2 The H, ADI, AEI, ACI, and BIO Indices 26715.5 Discussion and Conclusions 267References 27116 Analytical Methods in Ecoacoustics 273Stuart H. Gage, Michael Towsey and Eric P. Kasten16.1 Introduction 27316.2 Components of an Acoustic Recording 27516.3 Visualization of an Acoustic Recording 27616.3.1 Frequency Analysis 27616.3.2 Three‐Dimensional Spectrogram 27716.4 Processing Multiple Recordings 27716.5 Analyzing Acoustic Time Series 27916.6 Time Series of Acoustic Indices 28116.7 Searching and Symbolic Methods 28216.7.1 Searching a Recording for Anomalies 28416.7.2 Symbolic Representations and Unsupervised Learning 28516.8 Visualization and Navigation of Long‐Duration Recordings 28616.9 Spectrogram Pyramids 28916.9.1 Diel Plots 28916.10 New Approaches to Analysis 29116.11 Web Platforms for the Visualization of Environmental Audio 291References 29317 Ecoacoustics and its Expression through the Voice of the Arts: An Essay 297David Monacchi and Bernie Krause17.1 Introduction 29717.2 Immersive Art as a Science Dissemination Tool 29917.3 Examples of Ecoacoustic Works by Bernie Krause 30217.4 Examples of Ecoacoustics Works by David Monacchi 30617.4.1 Designing Temples for the Ear: The Ecoacoustic Theater 30917.4.2 Soundscape Projection Ambisonics Control Engine (S.P.A.C.E.) 31017.5 Conclusion 311References 31118 Ecoacoustics Challenges 313Stuart H. Gage and Almo Farina18.1 Introduction 31318.2 Philosophical Issues 31318.3 Ecological Issues 31418.4 Sensor Technology 31518.5 Acoustic Computations and Modeling 31618.6 Public Information 31618.7 Monetary Issues 317References 317Index 321