Philip A. Allen is the author of Earth Surface Processes, published by Wiley.

• Preface ixPart one Thinking globally: the global Earth surface system1 Fundamentals of the Earth surface system 3Chapter summary 31.1 Introduction 41.2 The Earth’s energy balance 51.3 The hydrological cycle 71.3.1 Role of the hydrological cycle in the global climate system 71.3.2 Global heat transfer 11l.3.3 Ocean–atmosphere interaction: driving mechanisms 111.3.4 Summary: a global interactive model 191.3.5 Runoff 221.4 Role of the biosphere 291.4.1 The carbon cycle 311.5 Topography and bathymetry 331.5.1 The shape of the Earth 331.5.2 Isostatic topography 341.5.3 The bathymetry of the ocean floor 421.5.4 Dynamic topography 431.5.5 Continental hypsometries 45Further reading 48References 482 Environmental change: past, present and future 51Chapter summary 512.1 Introduction: environmental change 522.1.1 Significance of the Quaternary 532.2 Environmental change associated with glaciation: the record of the Pleistocene 562.2.1 The northern hemisphere ice sheets and fringes 572.2.2 The marine stable isotope record 602.2.3 Information from ice cores 622.2.4 Wind-blown dust on land: loess 652.2.5 Wind-blown dust in the deep sea 682.2.6 Geomorphic change in low latitudes 712.3 Post-glacial changes up to the present day 762.3.1 Climatic changes in the Holocene 762.3.2 Effects of volcanic activity 772.4 Causes of past climate change 792.4.1 The forcing mechanisms of climate change 792.4.2 Sea level change 842.5 Human impact 882.5.1 Global warming 902.5.2 Natural hazards and global climate change 93Further reading 94References 943 Liberation and flux of sediment 96Chapter summary 963.1 Introduction 973.2 Weathering and soils 983.2.1 Mechanical weathering 983.2.2 Chemical weathering 993.2.3 Soils 1103.3 Sediment routing systems 1143.3.1 The Indus sediment routing system 1163.3.2 Modelling the erosional engine of the sediment routing system 1173.4 Sediment and solute fluxes in drainage basins 1283.4.1 Bedload 1293.4.2 Suspended load 1293.4.3 Solute load 1303.4.4 Relation between solute and suspended load 1313.4.5 Sediment rating curves 1323.5 Sediment yield and landscape models 1333.5.1 The relation between sediment yield and environmental factors 1343.5.2 The importance of tectonic activity 1353.6 Human impact on sediment yield 1433.6.1 Human impact in the drainage basin 1433.6.2 Deforestation 144Further reading 146References 146Part two Acting locally: fluid and sediment dynamics4 Some fluid mechanics 151Chapter summary 1514.1 Introduction: the mechanics of natural substances 1524.1.1 Dimensional analysis 1534.1.2 The mechanics of clear fluids undergoing shear 1554.2 Settling of grains in a fluid 1564.2.1 Fluid resistance or drag 1564.2.2 Stokes’ law 1574.2.3 Pressure and shear forces on a particle 1594.3 Flow down an inclined plane 1644.4 Turbulent flow 1674.4.1 The experiments of Reynolds 1674.4.2 The description of turbulence 1674.4.3 Structure of turbulent boundary layers 1704.4.4 Velocity profiles in turbulent flows 1744.4.5 Flow separation 176Further reading 178References 1785 Sediment transport 179Chapter summary 1795.1 Introduction 1805.1.1 The sediment continuity equation 1805.2 The threshold of sediment movement under unidirectional flows 1815.2.1 Forces on a particle resting on a bed 1815.2.2 Dimensional analysis of the threshold problem 1835.2.3 The Shields diagram 1845.3 Modes of sediment transport 1865.3.1 Bedload 1885.3.2 Flow resistance and palaeohydrology in bedload rivers 1895.3.3 Suspended load 1935.3.4 A diffusion model for suspended sediment concentrations 1945.4 Bedforms in a cohesionless substrate 1985.4.1 Froude number 1985.4.2 Dimensional analysis of bedforms under a shear flow 2005.4.3 The existence fields of bedforms 2015.4.4 The flow regime concept 2025.4.5 Flow over ripples and dunes 2035.4.6 Stability theory 2035.4.7 Defect propagation 2055.4.8 Stratification caused by the migration of bedforms 205Further reading 208References 2096 Hyperconcentrated and mass flows 211Chapter summary 2116.1 Introduction 2126.1.1 Variability of mass flows and hyperconcentrated flows 2126.2 Soil creep 2186.3 The initiation of slope failure 2196.3.1 Friction 2196.3.2 Strength of natural materials 2196.3.3 The Navier–Coulomb criterion of failure 2206.3.4 Sliding on a slope 2216.3.5 Rotational failures 2226.3.6 The importance of fluid pressures 2226.4 The Mechanics of debris flows 2236.4.1 Bingham plastic model 2236.4.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 2236.4.3 Turbulence in debris flows 2246.5 Turbidity currents 2276.5.1 Density currents in nature 2276.5.2 The mechanics of turbidity currents 2286.5.3 Deposition from turbidity currents 2326.6 Pyroclastic density currents 235Further reading 238References 2397 Jets, plumes and mixing at the coast 241Chapter summary 2417.1 Introduction to mixing phenomena 2427.2 Model of a turbulent axisymmetric jet 2427.3 River outflows 2457.3.1 Dynamics at river mouths 2457.3.2 Mississippi outflow case study 2527.3.3 Modifying marine processes 2567.3.4 A note on delta classification 2577.4 Estuaries 2587.4.1 Estuary types 2587.4.2 The turbidity maximum and its controls 262Further reading 265References 2658 Tides and waves 267Chapter summary 2678.1 Introduction to surface waves 2688.2 Tidal observations 2688.3 Ocean tides 2708.3.1 Tide-generating forces 2708.3.2 Kelvin waves in the open ocean 2748.3.3 Tsunamis 2758.4 Tides in shallow waters 2768.4.1 Shoaling of ocean tides on the continental shelf 2768.4.2 Tidal co-oscillation in a partially enclosed sea 2778.4.3 Tidal currents in shallow waters 2828.4.4 Tides in estuaries 2848.4.5 Dissipation of tidal energy 2858.5 Sediment transport under tidal flows 2858.5.1 Tidal sandwaves 2868.6 Wind-generated waves 2898.6.1 Small-amplitude wave theory 2908.6.2 Transformations in shallow water 2948.7 Sediment transport under waves 2998.7.1 The threshold of sediment movement under waves 2998.7.2 Wave-generated bedforms 301Further reading 304References 3049 Ocean currents and storms 307Chapter summary 3079.1 Introduction 3089.2 Currents in the ocean 3099.2.1 An intuitive description of the Coriolis force 3099.2.2 The wind-driven circulation 3109.2.3 Currents without friction: geostrophic flows 3159.2.4 Coastal upwelling and downwelling 3189.2.5 Effects of sea bed friction on a geostrophic current 3199.2.6 Interaction between ocean currents and coastal waters 3209.3 Deep water sediment drifts 3219.4 Passage of a storm/cyclone 3229.4.1 The barometric effect 3239.4.2 Wind set-up 3249.4.3 Wave set-up 3259.4.4 The pressure gradient current 3269.4.5 Sediment transport and bedforms under storms 3279.5 Storms as hazards 337Further reading 339References 33910 Wind 341Chapter summary 34110.1 Introduction 34210.2 Atmospheric circulation 34310.2.1 Atmospheric stability 34310.2.2 The geostrophic wind 34410.2.3 The planetary wind field 34510.3 The atmospheric boundary layer 34810.3.1 The velocity profile in the wind 34810.3.2 The effect of topography 34810.4 Sediment transport by the wind 35010.4.1 Threshold of sediment motion 35010.4.2 Modes of sediment transport 35310.5 Aeolian bedforms and deposits 36010.5.1 Lamination styles 36110.5.2 Ripples 36210.5.3 Dunes 36510.6 Wind as a hazard 36710.6.1 Strong winds and drought 36710.6.2 Soil erosion by wind 369Further reading 371References 37111 Glaciers 373Chapter summary 37311.1 Introduction: the cryosphere 37411.2 The dynamics of ice 37611.2.1 Introduction 37611.2.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 37711.2.3 Ideal plastic model 38311.2.4 Discharge variations in glaciers 38411.3 Sediment transport by ice 38711.3.1 Glacial erosion 38711.3.2 Glacial deposition 38811.3.3 Altitudinal zonation of surface process in glaciated landscapes 39211.3.4 The sediment budget of the Raikot glacier 394Further reading 396References 397Index 398

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Philip A. Allen is the author of Earth Surface Processes, published by Wiley.

• Preface ixPart one Thinking globally: the global Earth surface system1 Fundamentals of the Earth surface system 3Chapter summary 31.1 Introduction 41.2 The Earth’s energy balance 51.3 The hydrological cycle 71.3.1 Role of the hydrological cycle in the global climate system 71.3.2 Global heat transfer 11l.3.3 Ocean–atmosphere interaction: driving mechanisms 111.3.4 Summary: a global interactive model 191.3.5 Runoff 221.4 Role of the biosphere 291.4.1 The carbon cycle 311.5 Topography and bathymetry 331.5.1 The shape of the Earth 331.5.2 Isostatic topography 341.5.3 The bathymetry of the ocean floor 421.5.4 Dynamic topography 431.5.5 Continental hypsometries 45Further reading 48References 482 Environmental change: past, present and future 51Chapter summary 512.1 Introduction: environmental change 522.1.1 Significance of the Quaternary 532.2 Environmental change associated with glaciation: the record of the Pleistocene 562.2.1 The northern hemisphere ice sheets and fringes 572.2.2 The marine stable isotope record 602.2.3 Information from ice cores 622.2.4 Wind-blown dust on land: loess 652.2.5 Wind-blown dust in the deep sea 682.2.6 Geomorphic change in low latitudes 712.3 Post-glacial changes up to the present day 762.3.1 Climatic changes in the Holocene 762.3.2 Effects of volcanic activity 772.4 Causes of past climate change 792.4.1 The forcing mechanisms of climate change 792.4.2 Sea level change 842.5 Human impact 882.5.1 Global warming 902.5.2 Natural hazards and global climate change 93Further reading 94References 943 Liberation and flux of sediment 96Chapter summary 963.1 Introduction 973.2 Weathering and soils 983.2.1 Mechanical weathering 983.2.2 Chemical weathering 993.2.3 Soils 1103.3 Sediment routing systems 1143.3.1 The Indus sediment routing system 1163.3.2 Modelling the erosional engine of the sediment routing system 1173.4 Sediment and solute fluxes in drainage basins 1283.4.1 Bedload 1293.4.2 Suspended load 1293.4.3 Solute load 1303.4.4 Relation between solute and suspended load 1313.4.5 Sediment rating curves 1323.5 Sediment yield and landscape models 1333.5.1 The relation between sediment yield and environmental factors 1343.5.2 The importance of tectonic activity 1353.6 Human impact on sediment yield 1433.6.1 Human impact in the drainage basin 1433.6.2 Deforestation 144Further reading 146References 146Part two Acting locally: fluid and sediment dynamics4 Some fluid mechanics 151Chapter summary 1514.1 Introduction: the mechanics of natural substances 1524.1.1 Dimensional analysis 1534.1.2 The mechanics of clear fluids undergoing shear 1554.2 Settling of grains in a fluid 1564.2.1 Fluid resistance or drag 1564.2.2 Stokes’ law 1574.2.3 Pressure and shear forces on a particle 1594.3 Flow down an inclined plane 1644.4 Turbulent flow 1674.4.1 The experiments of Reynolds 1674.4.2 The description of turbulence 1674.4.3 Structure of turbulent boundary layers 1704.4.4 Velocity profiles in turbulent flows 1744.4.5 Flow separation 176Further reading 178References 1785 Sediment transport 179Chapter summary 1795.1 Introduction 1805.1.1 The sediment continuity equation 1805.2 The threshold of sediment movement under unidirectional flows 1815.2.1 Forces on a particle resting on a bed 1815.2.2 Dimensional analysis of the threshold problem 1835.2.3 The Shields diagram 1845.3 Modes of sediment transport 1865.3.1 Bedload 1885.3.2 Flow resistance and palaeohydrology in bedload rivers 1895.3.3 Suspended load 1935.3.4 A diffusion model for suspended sediment concentrations 1945.4 Bedforms in a cohesionless substrate 1985.4.1 Froude number 1985.4.2 Dimensional analysis of bedforms under a shear flow 2005.4.3 The existence fields of bedforms 2015.4.4 The flow regime concept 2025.4.5 Flow over ripples and dunes 2035.4.6 Stability theory 2035.4.7 Defect propagation 2055.4.8 Stratification caused by the migration of bedforms 205Further reading 208References 2096 Hyperconcentrated and mass flows 211Chapter summary 2116.1 Introduction 2126.1.1 Variability of mass flows and hyperconcentrated flows 2126.2 Soil creep 2186.3 The initiation of slope failure 2196.3.1 Friction 2196.3.2 Strength of natural materials 2196.3.3 The Navier–Coulomb criterion of failure 2206.3.4 Sliding on a slope 2216.3.5 Rotational failures 2226.3.6 The importance of fluid pressures 2226.4 The Mechanics of debris flows 2236.4.1 Bingham plastic model 2236.4.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 2236.4.3 Turbulence in debris flows 2246.5 Turbidity currents 2276.5.1 Density currents in nature 2276.5.2 The mechanics of turbidity currents 2286.5.3 Deposition from turbidity currents 2326.6 Pyroclastic density currents 235Further reading 238References 2397 Jets, plumes and mixing at the coast 241Chapter summary 2417.1 Introduction to mixing phenomena 2427.2 Model of a turbulent axisymmetric jet 2427.3 River outflows 2457.3.1 Dynamics at river mouths 2457.3.2 Mississippi outflow case study 2527.3.3 Modifying marine processes 2567.3.4 A note on delta classification 2577.4 Estuaries 2587.4.1 Estuary types 2587.4.2 The turbidity maximum and its controls 262Further reading 265References 2658 Tides and waves 267Chapter summary 2678.1 Introduction to surface waves 2688.2 Tidal observations 2688.3 Ocean tides 2708.3.1 Tide-generating forces 2708.3.2 Kelvin waves in the open ocean 2748.3.3 Tsunamis 2758.4 Tides in shallow waters 2768.4.1 Shoaling of ocean tides on the continental shelf 2768.4.2 Tidal co-oscillation in a partially enclosed sea 2778.4.3 Tidal currents in shallow waters 2828.4.4 Tides in estuaries 2848.4.5 Dissipation of tidal energy 2858.5 Sediment transport under tidal flows 2858.5.1 Tidal sandwaves 2868.6 Wind-generated waves 2898.6.1 Small-amplitude wave theory 2908.6.2 Transformations in shallow water 2948.7 Sediment transport under waves 2998.7.1 The threshold of sediment movement under waves 2998.7.2 Wave-generated bedforms 301Further reading 304References 3049 Ocean currents and storms 307Chapter summary 3079.1 Introduction 3089.2 Currents in the ocean 3099.2.1 An intuitive description of the Coriolis force 3099.2.2 The wind-driven circulation 3109.2.3 Currents without friction: geostrophic flows 3159.2.4 Coastal upwelling and downwelling 3189.2.5 Effects of sea bed friction on a geostrophic current 3199.2.6 Interaction between ocean currents and coastal waters 3209.3 Deep water sediment drifts 3219.4 Passage of a storm/cyclone 3229.4.1 The barometric effect 3239.4.2 Wind set-up 3249.4.3 Wave set-up 3259.4.4 The pressure gradient current 3269.4.5 Sediment transport and bedforms under storms 3279.5 Storms as hazards 337Further reading 339References 33910 Wind 341Chapter summary 34110.1 Introduction 34210.2 Atmospheric circulation 34310.2.1 Atmospheric stability 34310.2.2 The geostrophic wind 34410.2.3 The planetary wind field 34510.3 The atmospheric boundary layer 34810.3.1 The velocity profile in the wind 34810.3.2 The effect of topography 34810.4 Sediment transport by the wind 35010.4.1 Threshold of sediment motion 35010.4.2 Modes of sediment transport 35310.5 Aeolian bedforms and deposits 36010.5.1 Lamination styles 36110.5.2 Ripples 36210.5.3 Dunes 36510.6 Wind as a hazard 36710.6.1 Strong winds and drought 36710.6.2 Soil erosion by wind 369Further reading 371References 37111 Glaciers 373Chapter summary 37311.1 Introduction: the cryosphere 37411.2 The dynamics of ice 37611.2.1 Introduction 37611.2.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 37711.2.3 Ideal plastic model 38311.2.4 Discharge variations in glaciers 38411.3 Sediment transport by ice 38711.3.1 Glacial erosion 38711.3.2 Glacial deposition 38811.3.3 Altitudinal zonation of surface process in glaciated landscapes 39211.3.4 The sediment budget of the Raikot glacier 394Further reading 396References 397Index 398

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Philip A. Allen is the author of Earth Surface Processes, published by Wiley.

• Preface ixPart one Thinking globally: the global Earth surface system1 Fundamentals of the Earth surface system 3Chapter summary 31.1 Introduction 41.2 The Earth’s energy balance 51.3 The hydrological cycle 71.3.1 Role of the hydrological cycle in the global climate system 71.3.2 Global heat transfer 11l.3.3 Ocean–atmosphere interaction: driving mechanisms 111.3.4 Summary: a global interactive model 191.3.5 Runoff 221.4 Role of the biosphere 291.4.1 The carbon cycle 311.5 Topography and bathymetry 331.5.1 The shape of the Earth 331.5.2 Isostatic topography 341.5.3 The bathymetry of the ocean floor 421.5.4 Dynamic topography 431.5.5 Continental hypsometries 45Further reading 48References 482 Environmental change: past, present and future 51Chapter summary 512.1 Introduction: environmental change 522.1.1 Significance of the Quaternary 532.2 Environmental change associated with glaciation: the record of the Pleistocene 562.2.1 The northern hemisphere ice sheets and fringes 572.2.2 The marine stable isotope record 602.2.3 Information from ice cores 622.2.4 Wind-blown dust on land: loess 652.2.5 Wind-blown dust in the deep sea 682.2.6 Geomorphic change in low latitudes 712.3 Post-glacial changes up to the present day 762.3.1 Climatic changes in the Holocene 762.3.2 Effects of volcanic activity 772.4 Causes of past climate change 792.4.1 The forcing mechanisms of climate change 792.4.2 Sea level change 842.5 Human impact 882.5.1 Global warming 902.5.2 Natural hazards and global climate change 93Further reading 94References 943 Liberation and flux of sediment 96Chapter summary 963.1 Introduction 973.2 Weathering and soils 983.2.1 Mechanical weathering 983.2.2 Chemical weathering 993.2.3 Soils 1103.3 Sediment routing systems 1143.3.1 The Indus sediment routing system 1163.3.2 Modelling the erosional engine of the sediment routing system 1173.4 Sediment and solute fluxes in drainage basins 1283.4.1 Bedload 1293.4.2 Suspended load 1293.4.3 Solute load 1303.4.4 Relation between solute and suspended load 1313.4.5 Sediment rating curves 1323.5 Sediment yield and landscape models 1333.5.1 The relation between sediment yield and environmental factors 1343.5.2 The importance of tectonic activity 1353.6 Human impact on sediment yield 1433.6.1 Human impact in the drainage basin 1433.6.2 Deforestation 144Further reading 146References 146Part two Acting locally: fluid and sediment dynamics4 Some fluid mechanics 151Chapter summary 1514.1 Introduction: the mechanics of natural substances 1524.1.1 Dimensional analysis 1534.1.2 The mechanics of clear fluids undergoing shear 1554.2 Settling of grains in a fluid 1564.2.1 Fluid resistance or drag 1564.2.2 Stokes’ law 1574.2.3 Pressure and shear forces on a particle 1594.3 Flow down an inclined plane 1644.4 Turbulent flow 1674.4.1 The experiments of Reynolds 1674.4.2 The description of turbulence 1674.4.3 Structure of turbulent boundary layers 1704.4.4 Velocity profiles in turbulent flows 1744.4.5 Flow separation 176Further reading 178References 1785 Sediment transport 179Chapter summary 1795.1 Introduction 1805.1.1 The sediment continuity equation 1805.2 The threshold of sediment movement under unidirectional flows 1815.2.1 Forces on a particle resting on a bed 1815.2.2 Dimensional analysis of the threshold problem 1835.2.3 The Shields diagram 1845.3 Modes of sediment transport 1865.3.1 Bedload 1885.3.2 Flow resistance and palaeohydrology in bedload rivers 1895.3.3 Suspended load 1935.3.4 A diffusion model for suspended sediment concentrations 1945.4 Bedforms in a cohesionless substrate 1985.4.1 Froude number 1985.4.2 Dimensional analysis of bedforms under a shear flow 2005.4.3 The existence fields of bedforms 2015.4.4 The flow regime concept 2025.4.5 Flow over ripples and dunes 2035.4.6 Stability theory 2035.4.7 Defect propagation 2055.4.8 Stratification caused by the migration of bedforms 205Further reading 208References 2096 Hyperconcentrated and mass flows 211Chapter summary 2116.1 Introduction 2126.1.1 Variability of mass flows and hyperconcentrated flows 2126.2 Soil creep 2186.3 The initiation of slope failure 2196.3.1 Friction 2196.3.2 Strength of natural materials 2196.3.3 The Navier–Coulomb criterion of failure 2206.3.4 Sliding on a slope 2216.3.5 Rotational failures 2226.3.6 The importance of fluid pressures 2226.4 The Mechanics of debris flows 2236.4.1 Bingham plastic model 2236.4.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 2236.4.3 Turbulence in debris flows 2246.5 Turbidity currents 2276.5.1 Density currents in nature 2276.5.2 The mechanics of turbidity currents 2286.5.3 Deposition from turbidity currents 2326.6 Pyroclastic density currents 235Further reading 238References 2397 Jets, plumes and mixing at the coast 241Chapter summary 2417.1 Introduction to mixing phenomena 2427.2 Model of a turbulent axisymmetric jet 2427.3 River outflows 2457.3.1 Dynamics at river mouths 2457.3.2 Mississippi outflow case study 2527.3.3 Modifying marine processes 2567.3.4 A note on delta classification 2577.4 Estuaries 2587.4.1 Estuary types 2587.4.2 The turbidity maximum and its controls 262Further reading 265References 2658 Tides and waves 267Chapter summary 2678.1 Introduction to surface waves 2688.2 Tidal observations 2688.3 Ocean tides 2708.3.1 Tide-generating forces 2708.3.2 Kelvin waves in the open ocean 2748.3.3 Tsunamis 2758.4 Tides in shallow waters 2768.4.1 Shoaling of ocean tides on the continental shelf 2768.4.2 Tidal co-oscillation in a partially enclosed sea 2778.4.3 Tidal currents in shallow waters 2828.4.4 Tides in estuaries 2848.4.5 Dissipation of tidal energy 2858.5 Sediment transport under tidal flows 2858.5.1 Tidal sandwaves 2868.6 Wind-generated waves 2898.6.1 Small-amplitude wave theory 2908.6.2 Transformations in shallow water 2948.7 Sediment transport under waves 2998.7.1 The threshold of sediment movement under waves 2998.7.2 Wave-generated bedforms 301Further reading 304References 3049 Ocean currents and storms 307Chapter summary 3079.1 Introduction 3089.2 Currents in the ocean 3099.2.1 An intuitive description of the Coriolis force 3099.2.2 The wind-driven circulation 3109.2.3 Currents without friction: geostrophic flows 3159.2.4 Coastal upwelling and downwelling 3189.2.5 Effects of sea bed friction on a geostrophic current 3199.2.6 Interaction between ocean currents and coastal waters 3209.3 Deep water sediment drifts 3219.4 Passage of a storm/cyclone 3229.4.1 The barometric effect 3239.4.2 Wind set-up 3249.4.3 Wave set-up 3259.4.4 The pressure gradient current 3269.4.5 Sediment transport and bedforms under storms 3279.5 Storms as hazards 337Further reading 339References 33910 Wind 341Chapter summary 34110.1 Introduction 34210.2 Atmospheric circulation 34310.2.1 Atmospheric stability 34310.2.2 The geostrophic wind 34410.2.3 The planetary wind field 34510.3 The atmospheric boundary layer 34810.3.1 The velocity profile in the wind 34810.3.2 The effect of topography 34810.4 Sediment transport by the wind 35010.4.1 Threshold of sediment motion 35010.4.2 Modes of sediment transport 35310.5 Aeolian bedforms and deposits 36010.5.1 Lamination styles 36110.5.2 Ripples 36210.5.3 Dunes 36510.6 Wind as a hazard 36710.6.1 Strong winds and drought 36710.6.2 Soil erosion by wind 369Further reading 371References 37111 Glaciers 373Chapter summary 37311.1 Introduction: the cryosphere 37411.2 The dynamics of ice 37611.2.1 Introduction 37611.2.2 Non-Newtonian fluid model 37711.2.3 Ideal plastic model 38311.2.4 Discharge variations in glaciers 38411.3 Sediment transport by ice 38711.3.1 Glacial erosion 38711.3.2 Glacial deposition 38811.3.3 Altitudinal zonation of surface process in glaciated landscapes 39211.3.4 The sediment budget of the Raikot glacier 394Further reading 396References 397Index 398

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