Drugs, Crime, and Justice

Steven Belenko is Professor in the Temple University Department of Criminal Justice and adjunct Professor at the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. He has conducted extensive research and published widely on drug abuse and crime, the impact of substance abuse on the adult and juvenile justice systems, drug policy, and developing and testing organizational change strategies to improve the implementation of drug treatment for offenders. In addition to numerous articles and book chapters, he is the sole author of two books on drug policy and coauthor of a recent book on implementation of drug treatment in community corrections. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Experimental Criminology.Cassia Spohn is School Director and Foundation Professor of Criminal Justice at Arizona State University. She is the author of several books, including The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (with Sam Walker and Miriam DeLone) and How Do Judges Decide? The Search for Fairness and Equity in Sentencing. She has published a number of articles examining prosecutors’ charging decisions in sexual assault cases and exploring the effect of race/ethnicity on charging and sentencing decisions. Her current research interests include the effect of race and gender on court processing decisions, victim characteristics and case outcomes in sexual assault cases, judicial decision making, sentencing of drug offenders, and the deterrent effect of imprisonment. In 1999, she was awarded the University of Nebraska Outstanding Research and Creative Activity Award.

• CHAPTER 1: DRUGS, CRIME, AND THE JUSTICE SYSTEM: OVERVIEWDrug Use in the United StatesArrests and Incarceration for Drug-Related CrimeThe Connections among Drug Abuse, Crime, and the Criminal Justice SystemGoal of the Book and Overview of the Remaining ChaptersCHAPTER 2: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS AND DRUG USE/ABUSEBasic Concepts about Psychoactive DrugsTolerance, Dependence, Abuse and AddictionDrug Abuse and Drug MisuseDrug Dependence and AddictionFactors Influencing Drugs’ Effects on Behavior and MoodClasses of Drugs and the Drug Enforcement Administration SchedulesClasses and Types of Illegal Drugs and Their EffectsMarijuanaFocus on an Issue: Marijuana as the “Gateway Drug”?Central Nervous System Depressants: OpiatesHeroinSynthetic Opiates (Opioids)Sedative-HypnoticsStimulant DrugsCocaineCrack CocaineAmphetaminesMethamphetamineHallucinogensLysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)Psilocybin (Mushrooms) and Peyote (Mescaline)Phencyclidine (PCP)Club DrugsSummary: Psychoactive Drugs and Their EffectsCHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF DRUG USE AND ABUSEExplaining Drug Use and AbuseIs Addiction a Moral Problem or a Disease?Biological and Genetic TheoriesPsychological TheoriesSociological TheoriesSummary: Theories of Drug Use and AbuseCHAPTER 4: DRUG ABUSE AND CRIMEThe Drugs-Crime ConnectionDrug Use Among OffendersDrug Use Among Offenders Under Correctional SupervisionThe Meaning of the Drugs-Crime Connection?Drugs and Crime: A Complex RelationshipTheories Explaining the Drugs-Crime ConnectionDrugs and Property CrimeDrugs and ViolenceStimulant Drugs and ViolenceOther Drugs and ViolenceFocus on an Issue: Gangs and Drug DealingSummary: Drug Abuse and CrimeCHAPTER 5: THE WAR ON DRUGS: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVESThe War on Drugs: A Historical OverviewThe First War on Drugs: Alcohol and ProhibitionCriminalizing Drug Use: Targeting Opium, Morphine and Other Mood-Altering DrugsThe Harrison Tax Act of 1914Focus on an Issue: Racial and Ethnic Prejudice and the Case for Criminalizing Drug UseThe Marihuana Tax Act of 1937Enforcing the Drug-Control LegislationThe Controlled Substances Act of 1970The Contemporary War on DrugsSentencing Reform and Sentencing GuidelinesSentencing Guidelines for Drug OffensesMandatory Minimum Sentencing StatutesSentences Imposed on Offenders Convicted of Offenses with Mandatory PenaltiesFocus on an Issue: The Crack-Power Cocaine DisparityCriticisms of Mandatory MinimumsDrug-Free School ZonesReducing the Supply of DrugsSummary: The War on DrugsCHAPTER 6: POLICING DRUGS: THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF LAW ENFORCEMENT STRATEGIESPolice and the War on Drugs: A Focus on Arresting Drug Users and SellersRacial Disparities in Drug ArrestsExplaining Increases in Arrest Rates for Drug OffendersDid Arrests Increase Because Drug Use Increased?Did Arrests Increase as a Result of Changes in Policies and Practices?The Effect of Changes in Policing StrategiesStop and Frisk ProceduresPretext Traffic StopsDrug Courier ProfilesFinancial Incentives To Fight the War on DrugsFocus on an Issue: Policing for Profit—Drug-Related ForfeituresThe Racial Disparity in Arrest RatesDo Blacks Use or Sell Drugs at Higher Rates than Whites?Are Police More Likely to Arrest Blacks than Whites for Drug Offenses?Summary: Policing Drugs and Drug OffendersCHAPTER 7: PROSECUTING DRUG OFFFENDERS IN STATE AND FEDERAL COURTSExplaining Decisions of Prosecutors and Judges: The Focal Concerns PerspectiveDrug Offenders in State and Federal CourtsDrug Offenders in State CourtsDrug Offenders in Federal CourtsProsecutors’ Charging and Plea Bargaining DecisionsResearch on Prosecutors’ Charging DecisionsCharging Decisions in State Court SystemsCharging Decisions in the Federal Court SystemFocus on an Issue: Prosecution of Pregnant Women Who Use/Abuse DrugsFiling Charges that Trigger Mandatory Minimum SentencesU.S. Attorneys and the Substantial Assistance DepartureFocus on an Issue: Substantial Assistance Departures and Mandatory MinimumSentences: Melendez v. United StatesResearch on Use of Substantial Assistance DeparturesSummary: Prosecuting Drug OffendersCHAPTER 8: SENTENCING DRUG OFFENDERSTrends in Sentencing Drug OffendersFocus on an Issue: The Supreme Court and the Substantial Assistance DepartureModeling the Sentencing ProcessDisparity and Discrimination in SentencingTypes of Sentencing DisparityTypes of Sentencing DiscriminationWarranted Versus Unwarranted DisparityGender Disparities in Sentencing Drug OffendersFocus on an Issue: Changes in the Racial Dynamics of Women’s IncarcerationRacial/Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Drug OffendersDisparity Versus Discrimination in Sentencing Drug OffendersRace and ImprisonmentRace/Ethnicity and Sentencing of Drug Offenders in State and Federal CourtsThe “Dangerous Drug Offender” in State and Federal CourtSummary: Sentencing Drug Offenders: Severity, Disparity and DiscriminationCHAPTER 9: THE IMPACT OF THE WAR ON DRUGSThe Impact of the War on Drugs on Use of Illegal DrugsFocus on an Issue: Malign Neglect?The Impact of the War on Drugs on the Prison PopulationThe Imprisonment BingeMass Incarceration of Drug OffendersThe Characteristics of Imprisoned Drug OffendersFocus on an Issue: The Effect of Imprisonment on Recidivism Rates for Felony Drug OffendersRace and Imprisonment for Drug OffensesGender and Imprisonment for Drug OffensesThe Impact of the War on Drugs on Crime: A Focus on PolicingExplaining the “New York Murder Mystery”The Effect of Drug Arrests on CrimeThe Effects of Policing Strategies Designed to Reduce Illegal Drug Activity and Other Types of CrimeDisplacement and Diffusion—Does Crime Simply Move Around the Corner?The Collateral Consequences of the War on DrugsFocus on an Issue: The Effect on Imprisonment on Employment ProspectsSummary: The Impact of the War on DrugsCHAPTER 10: DRUGS, CRIME AND JUSTICE IN THE 21ST CENTURYPublic Health Approaches: A Focus on Demand and Harm ReductionTreating Drug-Involved Offenders: Effectiveness of Different ModelsDiversionFocus on an Issue: Should Drug Dealers be Eligible for Treatment Diversion if They Also Use Drugs?Jail TreatmentPrison TreatmentTreatment under Community Corrections SupervisionDrug CourtsKey Elements of Drug CourtsDo Drug Courts Work?Medication Assisted TreatmentModifying Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the 21st CenturyNew Approaches: More Effective Solutions?The Debate over Decriminalization and Legalization of Illicit DrugsLegalizationDecriminalizationPotential Benefits and Problems from Legalization and DecriminalizationPrescription and Maintenance ModelsDecriminalizing and Legalizing Marijuana: Medical Marijuana, Decriminalization, and LegalizationMedical MarijuanaDecriminalization and Legalization of MarijuanaReimagining and Creating New Approaches to the Drugs, Crime and Justice Problem