Development of Children and Adolescents

Penny Hauser-Cram is a professor at Boston College in the Lynch School of Education. She received her Ed.D. in Human Development from Harvard University in 1983 and her research focuses on children and adolescents with developmental disabilities and children and adolescents living in poverty.Kevin Nugent is Professor of Children, Families and Schools at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst and has been on the faculty there since 1986. He received his Ph.D. from Boston College and he is the Founder and Director of the Brazelton Institute in the Department of Developmental Medicine at Children's Hospital in Boston and is on the faculty of the Harvard Medical School. His research focuses on early childhood development, cross-cultural study of child development and assessment and early intervention.Kathleen Theis received her Ph.D. from Boston College and is currently the Director of the Graduate Entry Pathway for the UMASS School of Medicine. She is both a developmental psychologist and a clinical specialist in mental nursing. She has extensive experience in the development of community-based nursing education and partnerships with clinical affiliates.John Travers passed away in the spring of 2011. He was a professor at Boston College in the Lynch School of Education where he had taught for more than 50 years. He was the author of a number of books in developmental and educational psychology.

• Part 1 IntroductionChapter 1 A Child’s Journey 3MAKING A DIFFERENCE: All Children Have Birthdays 3Children and Their Development 4What is Development? 5The Study of Development 5WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Developmental Domains 5Developmental Epochs: Is Age the Answer? 6Issues in Development 6A Child’s Journey in the 21st Century 9Research Insights: Are Today’s Children More Imaginative? 10Parenting: Children in the Home 10Children and Their Cultural Communities 12Children in a Technological World 13Culture and Parents‘ Views on Children’s Disabilities 14Practice: Video Games and Learning 15Explaining Development: The Theories 16Psychoanalytically Based Theories 16Cognitive Theories 18Learning Theories 23Ethological Theories 25Systems Theories 26Focus On: Urie Bronfenbrenner 28Asking Questions, Examining Answers 29The Scientific Method 29Designing Research Studies 30Collecting Data 37Reporting Research Results 38Policy: Ethical Considerations 39Chapter Summary 40Key Terms 41Critical Thinking Questions 41Development 41Part 2 Biological BeginningsChapter 2 Biological Foundations of Child Development 43MAKING A DIFFERENCE: It Can Start with Cells 43The Biology of Life 44The Functions of Cells 45DNA, RNA, and Protein 45WHEN CELLULAR SYSTEMS CONNECT: PKU as an Example 47Research Insights: “Turning Off” Genes 47Genes and Heredity 48Genes and Chromosomes 48Culture, Genetics, and Human Migration 50Patterns of Heredity 51Chromosomal Disorders 56Parenting: Genetic Counseling 58Gene-Environment Interactions 59Mechanisms of Interaction Between Genes and Environment 59Research on Gene-Environment Interactions: Kinship Studies 63The Physiology of Thinking and Feeling 66The Brain and Nervous System 66The Endocrine System and the Physiology of Stress 72WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Stress and Child Development 73Children’s Well-Being in Society 74Indicators of Children’s Well-Being in the United States 75Health Care among American Children 75                                                                   Policy: Who is Covered by Insurance, and How? 76Practice: A Hmong Child in the American Health-Care System 77Chapter Summary 78Key Terms 79Critical Thinking Questions 79Development 79Chapter 3 Prenatal Development 81MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Advocating for Care of Pregnant Women 81Conception 82Gametes and Meiosis 82Fertilization 84Prenatal Growth and Development 85The Germinal Period: 0 to 2 Weeks 85Policy: The Politics of Stem Cell Research 86The Period of the Embryo: 3 to 8 Weeks 87The Period of the Fetus: 9 Weeks to Birth 88The Developing Brain: A Closer Look 90Research Insights: Learning Before Birth 91Development and the Prenatal Environment 92Chemical Substances 92WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Alcohol and Pregnancy 95Focus On: Ann Streissguth and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 95Maternal Disease, Illness, and Stress 97Environmental Pollutants and Hazards 101Health During Pregnancy 102Physiology of Pregnancy 102Culture and Pregnancy 103Practice: Recommendations for a Healthy Pregnancy 104Complications of Pregnancy and High-Risk Pregnancies 104A Special High-Risk Case: The Pregnant Adolescent 106Pregnancy and Society 108Birth-Rate Trends 108Access to Health Care 108Infertility 109Parenting and ART: Telling the Children 113Practice: Multiple Births 114Parenting: Health, Family, and Culture 114Chapter Summary 116Key Terms 117Critical Thinking Questions 117Development 117Chapter 4 Birth and the Newborn 119MAKING A DIFFERENCE: An Unexpected Birth Experience 119Birth 120What Do You Know About Childbirth? 121Preparing for the Birth of the Baby 121Parenting: Writing a Birth Plan 122Stages of Labor 123Childbirth and Pain 124The Place of Childbirth: Home or Hospital? 125Focus On: Pioneers in the Natural Childbirth Movement 126Research Insights: Risks in Planned Cesarean Delivery 129At-Risk Infants: A Different Beginning 130Prematurity and Birth Weight 130Causes and Treatments of Prematurity 131Prematurity and Developmental Outcomes 131Low Birth Weight in the Developing World 132A Different Beginning for Parents, Too 132Research Insights: The Long-Term Risks of Prematurity 133WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Early Intervention for At-Risk Newborns 134Focus On: Heidelise Als 134Neonatal Mortality 135Policy: The Fourth Millennium Development Goals 137The Newborn 138A Dramatic Transition 138THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Newborn Reflexes and Behavioral States 139The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale 141Sensory Capacities and the Social Newborn 142The Developmental Tasks of theNewborn Period 147The Parent-Infant Bond 147Breast-Feeding: A Developmental Issue 147Practice: The UNICEF/WHO Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative 148Developmental Tasks Facing the Newborn 149Research Insights: Effects of Breast-Feeding on Intelligence 150Culture and Crying 151Chapter Summary 152Key Terms 152Critical Thinking Questions 153Development 153Part 3 InfancyChapter 5 Physical Development and Health in Infancy and Toddlerhood 155MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Beating the Odds 155A Framework for Children’s Health and Physical Development 156Biology of Health: Physical, Motor, and Perceptual Development 158New Directions in Infant Motor Research 159What Happens in the Brain? Beginning to Walk 160Physical Development: How Babies Grow into Toddlers 162Motor Development: From Sitting to Jumping 163Research Insights: Climbing Stairs 165Theories of Motor Development 166WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Dynamic Systems Theory 169Sensory and Perceptual Development: Taking in the World 169The Developing Brain: Biology of Health 172An Exuberant Burst of Synapse Formation 173Focus On: Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Wilder Penfield, Pioneers in Brain Research 173Research Insights: Mirror Neurons 175Pruning: Refining the Brain Through Experience 176Foundations of Health: Nutrition and Health 177Nutrition for Infants and Toddlers 177Nutritional Problems 178Policy: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) 179Capacities for Health: Caregivers, Environment, and Community 182The Physical Environment 182The Caregiving Environment 183Culture and Sleeping Arrangements 184Parenting: Products for Infants 185Practice: Infant and Toddler Child-Care Settings 186Motor Development in Different Cultural Environments 187Disruptions in Health: Neuromotor Disabilities 189Cerebral Palsy 189Muscular Dystrophy 190Down Syndrome 190Policy: Early Intervention 191Chapter Summary 193Key Terms 194Critical Thinking Questions 194Development 195Chapter 6 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 197MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Does Infant Stimulation Matter? 197Theories of Cognitive Development 198Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage 199Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 203Culture and Fatherhood 205Other Theories 205Information-Processing Approaches 206THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: The Basis for Cognitive Gains 210Research Methods 211Visual Preference Procedures 212Object Exploration Approaches 214Practice: Making Sense of Media Reports 214Studies of Infant Imitation 215Neuroimaging Techniques 215Standardized Tests of Infant Cognitive Development 216The Beginnings of Language 217The Language Areas of the Brain 217Theories of Language Development 218WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: The Interactionist Approach 219Acquiring Language: From Speech Perception to First Words 219The Role of Experience in Language Development 221Parenting: Wireless Parents 223Research Insights: The Video Deficit 223Raising a Bilingual Child 224Infant and Toddler Education 225Policy: Disparities in Cognitive Development in the First Years of Life 225Focus On: James J. Heckman, Nobel Prize Winner in Economics 225High-Quality Programs for Infants and Toddlers 226Chapter Summary 227Key Terms 228Critical Thinking Questions 229Development 229Chapter 7 Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 231MAKING A DIFFERENCE: The Infant Mental Health Professional 231Theories of Psychosocial Development 232Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 232Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 233Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 233WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: The Transactional Model 234The Importance of Attachment 235How Does Attachment Develop? 235Measuring Attachment 236Cultural Differences in Attachment 238Long-Term Effects of Early Attachment 239Policy: Maternal Employment During the First Year and How It Affects Attachment 240The Effects of Early Adverse Experiences 241Emotional Development 243THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: The Limbic System 243Emotion: The Language of Babies 245Expressing Emotion 245Transitions in Emotional Development in the First Years 247Emotional Regulation 248Social Competence 250Autism Spectrum Disorder 252Parenting: Red Flags for Autism Spectrum Disorder 252The Emerging Sense of Self 253Erikson, Stern, and the Sense of Self 253Self-Recognition and Self-Concept 254Empathy 255Are Babies Capable of Moral Acts? 256Research Insights: The Beginnings of Moral Development 256Environment, Temperament, and Psychosocial Development 257Cultural Differences in Parenting Practices During Infancy 257Focus On: Marian Wright Edelman and the Children’s Defense Fund 258Culture and School Readiness 259Fathers and Their Infants 259The Role of Siblings and Peers 261The Changing Role of Grandparents 262Practice: The Enduring Effects of Early Child Care 262The Role of Temperament 264Parenting: Goodness of Fit 266Chapter Summary 267Key Terms 268Critical Thinking Questions 268Development 269MILESTONES IN INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD 270Part 4 Early ChildhoodChapter 8 Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood 273MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Soap 273Biology of Health: Physical Growth and Development 274Growth and Size 274Brain Development 276THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Stress 279WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: National Well-Being and Young Brains 280Motor Development 281Focus On: Jack P. Shonkoff, MD, and the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University 281Foundations of Health: Health Promotion 287Health Promotion and Disease Prevention 287Practice: Well-Child Visits and Developmental Screening 288Nutrition, Food Allergies, and Malnutrition 289Policy: Food Insecurity and Food Deserts 293Immunizations and Vaccines 294Research Insights: Lessons from the Autism–Vaccine Controversy 296Promoting Dental Health 297Policy: Dental Health and Fluoride 297Capacity for Health: Caregivers, Community, and Child Safety 298Parenting: Health Literacy 298Kids, Germs, and Early Child Care 299Safety at Home and in the Community 301Common Disruptions in Health 305Asthma 305Culture and Medical Beliefs 307WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: An Ecological Perspective on Asthma Management 308Ear Infections: Otitis Media 308Chapter Summary 309Key Terms 310Critical Thinking Questions 310Development 311Chapter 9 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 313MAKING A DIFFERENCE: The Harlem Children’s Zone 313Piaget’s Theory and Preoperational Thought 315Advances and Limitations in Preoperational Thought 315Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory 319Practice: Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Preschool Classrooms 319Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 320Features of Vygotsky’s Theory 320Criticisms of Vygotsky’s Theory 322Focus On: Barbara Rogoff 323Practice: Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory for Preschool Classrooms 323Information Processing Theory 324WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: The Role of Executive Function 325THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: A Growth Spurt in Executive Function 326Combining Theories: Neo-Piagetian Approaches 330Criticisms of Information Processing Theory 330Practice: Implications of Information Processing Theory for Preschool Classrooms 330Research Insights: Can We Teach Executive Function Skills to Young Children? 331Language Development 332Vocabulary Growth 332Grammar Usage 334Rules of Conversation 336Speaking Two Languages 336WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Language Delays 338School Readiness 338Emergent Reading 339What Happens in the Brain? Beginning to Read 340Parenting: Helping Preschool Children Become Readers 342Emergent Writing 342Emergent Number Concepts 344Culture and Learning Numbers 345Preschool Education 347Research Insights: Young Children and Board Games 347Policy: P.L. 104-193: The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act 348Chapter Summary 352Key Terms 352Critical Thinking Questions 353Development 353Chapter 10 Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood 355MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Being a Voice for a Child 355Emotional Development 356Psychosocial Theory 356Recognizing Emotions 357Emotional Regulation 357Culture and Showing Pride and Shame 358The Development of a Sense of Self 360Self-Concept 360THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Self-Representation and the Brain 361Gender-Role Development 361Relationships with Peers 367Play 367Practice: How Can Preschool Teachers Support Play? 369Friendships 369Policy: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 372Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviors 373Focus On: Albert Bandura 376WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Developing a Theory of Mind 377Research Insights: Do Children with Autism Lack a Theory of Mind? 379Moral Development 379Right and Wrong 380Distributive Justice 382Parenting Practices 383Parenting Styles 384Parenting: Spanking as a Form of Discipline 386Maltreatment of Children 387Policy: The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) 388Research Insights: The Effects of Extreme Emotional Neglect 391Chapter Summary 392Key Terms 392Critical Thinking Questions 393Development 393MILESTONES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 394Part 5 Middle ChildhoodChapter 11 Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood 397MAKING A DIFFERENCE: School Health 397Biology of Health: Physical Growth and Development 398Growth and Size 398THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Middle Childhood 401Motor Development in Middle Childhood 404Research Insights: Degrees of Freedom 405Foundations of Health: Health Promotion 408Health Promotion and Disease Prevention 408Nutrition 411Culture and Body Weight 413WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Why the Incidence of Overweight and Obesity Has Increased 414Policy: Reducing and Preventing Childhood Obesity 416Parenting: Family Mealtime 416Physical Activity 417Focus On: Michelle Obama and Let’s Move! 419Capacity for Health: Caregivers and Community 419Safety from Unintentional Injuries 420Sports 422School Health 424Practice: The Coordinated School Health Program (CSHP) Model 425Common Disruptions in Health 427Chronic Conditions in Childhood 427Chapter Summary 431Key Terms 432Critical Thinking Questions 432Development 433Chapter 12 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 435MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Be a Buddy 435Piaget’s Theory and Concrete Operational Thought 436Accomplishments of the Concrete Operational Period 437Practice: Helping Children Develop Their Cognitive Skills in the Classroom 439Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory 440Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 440Development in Middle Childhood 441Practice: Vygotsky in the Classroom 442Criticisms of Vygotsky’s Theory 443Information Processing 444Attention 444THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Attention 447Memory 448Research Insights: Children with Problems with Attention 449Focus On: Eric Kandel 452Practice: Teaching Effective Memory Strategies 456Criticisms of Information Processing Theory 457Intelligence and Thinking 457The Search for Intelligence 458Culture and Views on Intelligence 458Binet, Wechsler, and Intelligence Testing 459A Theory of Multiple Intelligences 461The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 462The Development of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Skills 463Language Development 463Policy: English Language Learners 465Literacy Skills 467Mathematical Skills 468WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Mathematical Skills and Executive Functioning 469Parenting: Parental Engagement in Children’s Schooling 470Chapter Summary 471Key Terms 472Critical Thinking Questions 472Development 473Chapter 13 Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood 475MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Service Learning 475Emotional Development 476Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 477Antisocial Behavior 477Research Insights: Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression? 478Prosocial Behavior 479Emotional Regulation 480WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Coping with Stress 481Relating to One’s Self 482The I-Self and the Me-Self 482The Developing Sense of Self 482Gender Development 484Self-Esteem 484Parenting: Building Self-Esteem 486Relating to Others 487THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: The Social Brain 487Focus On: Antonio Damasio 489Understanding Others 489What Happens in the Brain? Emotional Self-Regulation in Middle Childhood 490Interacting with Peers 494Interacting with Parents 496Parenting: Supporting Children’s Well-Being After Divorce 499Interacting with Siblings 500Interacting at School 502Policy: Anti-Bullying Legislation 504Moral Development 505Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget and Kohlberg 505Telling the Truth 506Distributive Justice 507Culture and Children’s Evaluations of Truths and Lies 508Practice: Making Moral Principles Meaningful 508Chapter Summary 510Key Terms 511Critical Thinking Questions 511Development 511MILESTONES IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 512Part 6 AdolescenceChapter 14 Physical Development and Health in Adolescence 515MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Youth Advocating for Youth 515Biology of Health: Physical Growth and Development 516Focus On: G. Stanley Hall 516Puberty 517The Timing of Puberty 520Hormones, Emotions, and Behavior 521Culture and Menarche 522Brain Development 524WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Adolescent Brain Development 526Foundations of Health: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention 526Research Insights: Survey Data 527Nutrition and Physical Activity 527Sleep and Stress 531Adolescent Health Behaviors: Injury, Sexual Activity, and Substance Use 532Policy: Cervical Cancer, Human Papillomavirus, and a Vaccine 537Health Education and Prevention: Focus on Sex and Alcohol 539Parenting: The Role of Parents in Adolescent Sexual Behavior 540Alcohol and Drug Prevention Programs 541Capacity for Health: Caregivers, Community, and Safety 542Motor Vehicle Safety 542Access to Health Care for Adolescents 543What Happens in the Brain? Having a Conversation While Driving a Car 544Safety: Sports and Injury 546Practice: Treating Concussions in Adolescents 547WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: An Uneven Playing Field 548Common Disruptions in Health: Managing Chronic Illness 549Chapter Summary 551Key Terms 552Critical Thinking Questions 552Development 553Chapter 15 Cognitive Development in Adolescence 555MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Teen-to-Teen Tutors 555Piaget and Formal Operations 556Cognitive Changes in the Formal Operational Period 556Adolescent Egocentrism 560Contributions and Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory 561Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and the Adolescent Mind 562Acquiring Academic Language 562Practice: Peer Tutoring 563Contributions of Vygotsky’s Theory 564Information Processing in the Adolescent Years 565Cognitive Changes in Processing 565Changes in Metacognition 567Decision Making 568Contributions of the Information Processing Approach 570The Developing Brain: The Brain and Adolescent Cognition 571Changes in the Prefrontal Cortex 571Synaptic Pruning and Increased Myelination 572WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: The Effects of Experience 573Learning and Schooling 574Sex Differences in Math and Verbal Skills 574Academic Motivation 576Research Insights: Can Knowledge About Income Difference Motivate Students? 578Research Insights: Can You Grow Your Intelligence? 579Focus On: Claude Steele 580Parenting: Promoting School Achievement 580School Transitions 580School Completion 582Policy: The No Child Left Behind Act and High School Completion 583WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: School Completion 583Culture and Learning Models 585School and Work 586Chapter Summary 587Key Terms 588Critical Thinking Questions 588Development 589Chapter 16 Psychosocial Development in Adolescence 591MAKING A DIFFERENCE: Peer Court 591The Development of the Self: Identity 592Erikson’s Theory 592Marcia’s Patterns of Identity Status 593WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Identity Achievement and Cognitive Skills 594Ethnic and Racial Identity 594Focus On: Janet E. Helms 596Culture and the Immigrant Paradox 597Sexual Identity 598Relating to Others 599Adolescent–Parent Relationships 599Parenting: Psychological Control 602Adolescent–Peer Relationships 603Moral Development 608Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 608Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory 610THE DEVELOPING BRAIN: Moral Judgments 611Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior 613Research Insights: Impulsivity and Reward Seeking 614Policy: Trying Juveniles as Adults 617Risk and Resilience 618Adolescent Depression 618WHEN SYSTEMS CONNECT: Risk Factors for Depression 618Research Insights: Treatment for Adolescents with Depression 620Adolescent Eating Disorders 621Practice: Positive Youth Development 623Chapter Summary 625Key Terms 626Critical Thinking Questions 626Development 627MILESTONES IN ADOLESCENCE 628