Designing Audio Power Amplifiers

Häftad, Engelska, 2019

Av Bob Cordell

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This comprehensive book on audio power amplifier design will appeal to members of the professional audio engineering community as well as the student and enthusiast. Designing Audio Power Amplifiers begins with power amplifier design basics that a novice can understand and moves all the way through to in-depth design techniques for very sophisticated audiophiles and professional audio power amplifiers. This book is the single best source of knowledge for anyone who wishes to design audio power amplifiers. It also provides a detailed introduction to nearly all aspects of analog circuit design, making it an effective educational text. Develop and hone your audio amplifier design skills with in-depth coverage of these and other topics: Basic and advanced audio power amplifier design Low-noise amplifier design Static and dynamic crossover distortion demystified Understanding negative feedback and the controversy surrounding it Advanced NFB compensation techniques, including TPC and TMC Sophisticated DC servo design MOSFET power amplifiers and error correction Audio measurements and instrumentation Overlooked sources of distortion SPICE simulation for audio amplifiers, including a tutorial on LTspice SPICE transistor modeling, including the VDMOS model for power MOSFETs Thermal design and the use of ThermalTrak™ transistors Four chapters on class D amplifiers, including measurement techniques Professional power amplifiers Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS).

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum2019-06-13
Mått178 x 254 x 48 mm
Vikt1 351 g
FormatHäftad
SpråkEngelska
Antal sidor772
Upplaga2
FörlagTaylor & Francis Ltd
ISBN9781138555440

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Bob Cordell is an electrical engineer who has been deeply involved in audio since his adventures with vacuum tube designs in his teen years. He is an equal-opportunity designer to this day, having built amplifiers with vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors and MOSFETs. Bob is also a prolific designer of audio test equipment, including a high-performance THD analyzer and many purpose-built pieces of audio gear. He has published numerous articles and papers on power amplifier design and distortion measurement in the popular press and in the Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. In 1983 he published a power amplifier design combining vertical power MOSFETs with error correction, achieving unprecedented distortion levels of less than 0.001% at 20 kHz. He also consults in the audio and semiconductor industries.Bob is also an avid DIY loudspeaker builder, and has combined this endeavor with his electronic interests in the design of powered audiophile loudspeaker systems. Bob and his colleagues have presented audiophile listening and measurement workshops at the Rocky Mountain Audio Fest and the Home Entertainment Show.As an Electrical Engineer, Bob has worked at Bell Laboratories and other related telecommunications companies, where his work has included design of integrated circuits and fiber optic communications systems. Bob maintains an audiophile website at www.cordellaudio.com where diverse material on audio electronics, loudspeakers and instrumentation can be found.

Part 1: Audio Power Amplifier Basics1. Introduction1.1 Organization of the Book1.2 The Role of the Power Amplifier1.3 Basic Performance Specifications1.4 Additional Performance Specifications1.5 Output Voltage and Current1.6 Basic Amplifier Topology1.7 Summary2. Power Amplifier Basics2.1 BJT Transistors2.2 JFETs2.3 Power MOSFETs2.4 Basic Amplifier Stages2.5 Current Mirrors2.6 Current Sources and Voltage References2.7 Complementary Feedback Pair (CFP)2.8 Vbe Multiplier2.9 Operational Amplifiers2.10 Amplifier Design Analysis3. Power Amplifier Design Evolution3.1 About Simulation3.2 The Basic Power Amplifier3.3 Adding Input Stage Degeneration3.4 Adding a Darlington VAS3.5 Input Stage Current Mirror Load3.6 The Output Triple3.7 Cascoded VAS3.8 Paralleling Output Transistors3.9 Higher Power Amplifiers3.10 Crossover Distortion3.11 Performance Summary3.12 Completing an Amplifier3.13 Summary4. Building an Amplifier4.1 The Basic Design 4.2 The Front-End: IPS, VAS and Pre-Drivers4.3 Output Stage: Drivers and Outputs 4.4 Heat Sink and Thermal Management4.5 Protection Circuits 4.6 Power Supply 4.7 Grounding 4.8 Building the Amplifier4.9 Testing the Amplifier4.10 Troubleshooting4.11 Performance4.12 Scaling4.13 Upgrades5. Noise5.1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio5.2. A-weighted Noise Specifications5.3 Noise Power and Noise Voltage5.4 Noise Bandwidth5.5 Noise Voltage Density and Spectrum5.6 Relating Input Noise Density to Signal-to-Noise Ratio5.7 Amplifier Noise Sources5.8 Thermal Noise5.9 Shot Noise5.10 Bipolar Transistor Noise5.11 JFET Noise5.12. Op Amp Noise5.13 Noise Simulation5.14 Amplifier Circuit Noise5.15 Excess Resistor Noise5.16 Zener and LED Noise6. Negative Feedback Compensation and Slew Rate6.1 How Negative Feedback Works6.2 Input-referred Feedback Analysis6.3 Feedback Compensation and Stability6.4 Feedback Compensation Principles6.5 Evaluating Loop Gain6.6 Evaluating Stability6.7 Compensation Loop Stability6.8 Slew Rate7. Amplifier Classes, Output Stages and Efficiency7.1 Class A, AB and B Operation7.2 The Complementary Emitter Follower Output Stage7.3 Output Stage Efficiency7.4 Complementary Feedback Pair Output Stages7.5 Stacked Output Stages7.6 Classes G and H7.7 Class D8. Summary of Amplifier Design Considerations8.1 Power and Loads8.2 Sizing the Power Supply8.3 Sizing the Output Stage8.4 Sizing the Heat Sink8.5 Protecting the Amplifier and Loudspeaker8.6 Power and Ground Distribution8.7 Other ConsiderationsPart 2: Advanced Power Amplifier Design9. Input and VAS Circuits9.1 Single-Ended IPS-VAS9.2 JFET Input Stages9.3 Buffered Input Stages9.4 CFP Input Stages9.5 Complementary IPS and Push-Pull VAS9.6 Unipolar Input Stage and Push-Pull VAS9.7 Input Common Mode Distortion9.8 Early Effect9.9 Baker Clamps9.10 Current Feedback Amplifiers9.11 Example IPS/VAS10. DC Servos10.1 Origins and Consequences of DC Offset10.2 DC Servo Basics10.3 The Servo Is in the Signal Path10.4 DC Offset Detection and Protection10.5 DC Servo Example10.6 Eliminating the Input Coupling Capacitor10.7 DC Servo Design Issues and Nuances11. Advanced Forms of Feedback Compensation11.1 Understanding Stability Issues11.2 Miller Compensation11.3 Miller Input Compensation11.4 Two-Pole Compensation11.5 Transitional Miller Compensation11.6 A Vertical MOSFET TMC Amplifier Example11.7 Conclusion12. Output Stage Design and Crossover Distortion12.1 The Class AB Output Stage12.2 Static Crossover Distortion12.3 Optimum Bias and Bias Stability12.4 Output Stage Driver Circuits12.5 Output Transistor Matching Considerations12.6 Dynamic Crossover Distortion12.7 The Output Emitter Resistors12.8 Output Networks12.9 Output Stage Frequency Response and Stability 12.10 Sizing the Output Stage12.11 Delivering High Current12.12 Driving Paralleled Output Stages12.13 Advanced Output Transistors13. Output Stages II13.1. VAS Output Impedance and Stability13.2. Complementary Feedback Pair13.3 Output Stages with Gain13.4 Bryston Output Stage13.5 ThermalTrak™ Output Stage13.6 Class A Output Stage13.7 Crossover Displacement (Class XD™)13.8 Double Cross™ Output Stage13.9 Sliding Bias and Non-switching Output Stages13.10 LT1166 Output Stage13.11 Measuring Output Stage Distortion13.12 Setting the Bias14. MOSFET Power Amplifiers14.1 MOSFET Types and Characteristics14.2 MOSFET Advantages and Disadvantages14.3 Lateral vs. Vertical Power MOSFETs14.4 Parasitic Oscillations14.5 Biasing Power MOSFETs14.6 Crossover Distortion14.7 Driving Power MOSFETs14.8 Paralleling and Matching MOSFETs14.9 Simulating MOSFET Power Amplifiers14.10 A Lateral MOSFET Power Amplifier Design14.11 A Vertical MOSFET Power Amplifier Design15. Error Correction15.1 Feedforward Error Correction15.2 Hawksford Error Correction15.3 Error Correction for MOSFET Output Stages15.4 Stability and Compensation15.5 Performance and Design Issues15.6 Circuit Refinements and Nuances15.7 A MOSFET Power Amplifier with Error Correction16. Other Sources of Distortion16.1 Distortion Mechanisms16.2 Early Effect Distortion16.3 Junction Capacitance Distortion16.4 Grounding Distortion16.5 Power Rail Distortion16.6 Input Common Mode Distortion 16.7 Resistor Distortion16.8 Capacitor Distortion16.9 Inductor and Magnetic Distortions16.10 Magnetic Induction Distortion16.11 Fuse, Relay and Connector Distortion16.12 Load Induced Distortion16.13 EMI-Induced Distortion16.14 Thermally Induced Distortion (Memory Distortion)Part 3: Real World Design Considerations17. Output Stage Thermal Design and Stability17.1 Power Dissipation vs. Power and Load17.2 Thermal Design Concepts and Thermal Models17.3 Transistor Power Ratings17.4 Sizing the Heat Sink17.5 The Bias Spreader and Temperature Compensation17.6 Thermal Bias Stability17.7 Thermal Lag Distortion17.8 ThermalTrak™ Power Transistors17.9 A ThermalTrak™ Power Amplifier18. Safe Area and Short Circuit Protection18.1 Power Transistor Safe Operating Area18.2 Output Stage Safe Operating Area18.3 Short Circuit Protection18.4 Safe Area Limiting Circuits18.5 Testing Safe Area Limiting Circuits18.6 Protection Circuits for MOSFETs18.7 Protecting the Driver Transistors18.8 Loudspeaker Protection Circuits19. Power Supplies and Grounding19.1 The Design of the Power Supply19.2 Sizing the Transformer19.3 Sizing the Rectifier19.4 Sizing the Reservoir Capacitors19.5 Rectifier Speed19.6 Regulation and Active Smoothing of the Supply19.7 SPICE Simulation of Power Supplies19.8 Soft-Start Circuits19.9 Grounding Architectures19.10 Radiated Magnetic Fields19.11 Safety Circuits19.12 DC on the Mains19.13 Switching Power Supplies20. Switching Power Supplies20.1 Line DC Supply20.2 Isolated DC-DC Converter20.3 Buck Converters20.4 Synchronous Buck Converter20.5 Boost Converters20.6 Buck-Boost Converters20.7 Boost-Buck Converters20.8 Cuk Converters20.9 Forward Converters20.10 Flyback Converters20.11 Half-bridge Converters20.12 Full-bridge Converters20.13 Control ICs for PWM Converters20.14 Resonant Converters20.15 Quasi-Resonant Converters20.16 EMI Filtering and Suppression20.17 Power Factor Correction20.18 Auxiliary Supplies20.19 Switching Supplies for Power Amplifiers20.20 Switching Supplies for Class D Amplifiers21. Clipping Control and Civilized Amplifier Behavior21.1 The Incidence of Clipping21.2 Clipping and Sticking21.3 Negative Feedback and Clipping21.4 Baker Clamps21.5 Soft Clipping21.6 Current Limiting21.7 Parasitic Oscillation Bursts21.8 Selectable Output Impedance22. Interfacing the Real World22.1 The Amplifier-Loudspeaker Interface22.2 EMI Ingress – Antennas Everywhere22.3 Input Filtering22.4 Input Ground Loops22.5 Mains Filtering22.6 EMI Egress22.7 EMI Susceptibility TestingPart 4: Simulation and Measurement23. SPICE Simulation23.1 Linear Technologies LTspice®23.2 Schematic Capture 23.3 DC, AC and Transient Simulation 23.4 Distortion Analysis23.5 Noise Analysis23.6 Controlled Voltage and Current Sources23.7 Swept and Stepped Simulations23.8 Plotting Results23.9 Subcircuits23.10 SPICE Models23.11 Simulating a Power Amplifier23.12 Middlebrook and Tian Probes24. SPICE Models and Libraries24.1 Verifying SPICE Models 24.2 Tweaking SPICE Models 24.3 Creating a SPICE Model 24.4 JFET Models 24.5 Vertical Power MOSFET Models 24.6 LTspice VDMOS Models 24.7 The EKV Model 24.8 Lateral Power MOSFETs24.9 Installing Models 25. Audio Instrumentation25.1 Basic Audio Test Instruments25.2 Dummy Loads25.3 Simulated Loudspeaker Loads25.4 THD Analyzer25.5 PC-Based Instruments25.6 Purpose-Built Test Gear26. Distortion and its Measurement26.1 Nonlinearity and its Consequences26.2 Total Harmonic Distortion26.3 SMPTE IM26.4 CCIF IM26.5 Transient Intermodulation Distortion (TIM) and SID26.6 Phase Intermodulation Distortion (PIM)26.7 Interface Intermodulation Distortion (IIM)26.8 Multi-Tone Intermodulation Distortion (MIM)26.9 Highly Sensitive Distortion Measurement26.10 Input-Referred Distortion Analysis27. Other Amplifier Tests27.1 Measuring Damping Factor27.2 Sniffing Parasitic Oscillations27.3 EMI Ingress Susceptibility27.4 Burst Power and Peak Current27.5 PSRR Tests27.6 Low-frequency Tests27.7 Back-Feeding TestsPart 5: Topics in Amplifier Design28. The Negative Feedback Controversy28.1 How Negative Feedback Got its Bad Rap28.2 Negative Feedback and Open-loop Bandwidth28.3 Spectral Growth Distortion28.4 Global Versus Local Feedback28.5 Timeliness of Correction28.6 EMI from the Speaker Cable28.7 Stability and Burst Oscillations28.8 Clipping Behavior29. Amplifiers without Negative Feedback29.1 Design Tradeoffs and Challenges29.2 Additional Design Techniques29.3 An Example Design with No Feedback29.4 A Feedback Amplifier with Wide Open-loop Bandwidth30. Balanced and Bridged Amplifiers30.1 Balanced Input Amplifiers30.2 Bridged Amplifiers30.3 Balanced Amplifiers31. Integrated Circuit Power Amplifiers and Drivers31.1 IC Power Amplifiers31.2 The Gain Clones31.3 The Super Gain Clone31.4 Integrated Circuit Drivers31.5 Summary32. Professional Power Amplifiers32.1 Environment and Special Needs32.2 Output Stages and Output Power32.3 Power Supplies32.4 Cooling and Heat Removal32.5 Microcomputers32.6 Networked Control and Monitoring32.7 Digital Signal Processing32.8 DSP-Based Protection and Monitoring32.9 The DSP to Class D Interface32.10 Programming32.11 Audio NetworkingPart 6: Class D Audio Amplifiers33. Class D Audio Amplifiers33.1 How Class D Amplifiers Work33.2 Class D Output Stages33.3 Bridge Tied Load Designs33.4 Negative Feedback33.5 Noise Shaping in PWM Modulators with Feedback33.6 Summary34. Class D Design Issues34.1 The Output Filter and EMI34.2 Spread Spectrum Class D34.3 Filterless Class D Amplifiers34.4 Buck Converters and Class D Amplifiers34.5 Sources of Distortion34.6 Bus Pumping34.7 Power Supply Rejection34.8 Power Supplies for Class D Amplifiers34.9 Damping Factor and Load Invariance34.10 Summary35. Alternative Class D Modulators35.1 Self-Oscillating Loops35.2 Sigma-Delta Modulators35.3 Digital Modulators36. Class D Measurement, Efficiency and Designs36.1 Hybrid Class D36.2 Measuring Class D Amplifiers36.3 Achievable Performance36.4 Integrated Circuits for Class D Amplifiers36.5 Example Class D Amplifiers and Measurements

"Essential reading for anyone fascinated by the superficially simple idea of how to make a small electrical signal powerful enough to drive a loudspeaker without degrading that signal in the process." - John Atkinson, Stereophile"A complete text ideal for newcomers to amplifier design engineering as well as a great reference for practicing audio design engineers already working in the industry. [...] Because of the tiered approach of the first three parts of the book, its usefulness will grow with you as you become more proficient at amplifier design. I’m happy to find a place for this book in my technical library, as should you." - Dennis Fink, Fink Analog Audio, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society