Viswanathan S. Saji, PhD, is an Assistant Professor/Research Scientist at the Center of Research Excellence in Corrosion, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia. Prior to that, he was a Research Scholar at the University of Kerala (PhD, 2003), Research Associate at Indian Institute of Technology (2004–2005) & Indian Institute of Science (2005–2007), Postdoctoral Researcher at Yonsei University (2007–2008) & Sunchon National University (2009), Senior Research Scientist at Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (2009–2010), Research Professor at Chosun University (2008–2009) & Korea University (2010–2013), and Endeavour Research Fellow at University of Adelaide (2014).Saviour A. Umoren, PhD, is an Associate Professor/Research Scientist with Centre of Research Excellence in Corrosion (CoRE-C) of the Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He was also a lecturer and researcher at the Department of Chemistry, University of Uyo, Nigeria and the Head of Department of Chemistry, University of Uyo.

• Preface xvAcknowledgments xixPart I Fundamentals and Approaches 11 An Overview of Corrosion in Oil and Gas Industry: Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream Sectors 3Yahya T. Al-Janabi1.1 Introduction 31.2 Corrosion in Upstream Production Operations 41.2.1 Causes of Corrosion in Upstream Environments 71.2.1.1 Oxygen 81.2.1.2 Hydrogen Sulfide, Polysulfides, and Sulfur 91.2.1.3 Carbon Dioxide 101.2.1.4 Strong Acids 111.2.1.5 Concentrated Brines 111.2.2 Corrosion Types in Petroleum Production Operations 111.2.3 Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Production 121.2.3.1 Oil and Gas Wells 121.2.3.2 Inhibitor Selection 131.2.3.3 Practical Challenges with Inhibition 141.2.3.4 Inhibitor Application Methods 141.2.3.5 Oxygen Removal 161.2.4 Problems Encountered and Protective Measures 171.2.4.1 Drilling Fluid Corrosion 171.2.4.2 Primary Production 181.2.4.3 Corrosion in Secondary Recovery Operations 201.2.5 CO2 Injection 231.2.6 Corrosion of Oil and Gas Offshore Production Platforms 231.2.7 Corrosion of Gathering Systems and Tanks 231.2.7.1 Sweet Gas Corrosion 241.2.7.2 Sour Gas Corrosion 241.2.7.3 Oil Wells Corrosion 241.3 Corrosion in Midstream Sector 251.3.1 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Oil Pipeline Systems 271.3.2 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Gas Pipeline Systems 281.3.3 Control of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Water Pipeline Systems 281.3.4 Chemical Inhibition of Internal Corrosion in Carbon Steel Pipeline Systems 291.4 Corrosion in Downstream Sector 301.4.1 Materials of Construction 311.4.2 Corrosion in Refineries and Petrochemical Plants 321.4.3 Corrosion Inhibitors in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 331.4.4 Corrosion Control of Water-Recirculating Systems 331.4.4.1 Typical Corrosion Reactions in Water-Recirculating Systems 341.4.4.2 Water Corrosivity 351.4.4.3 Corrosion Control 361.5 Conclusions and Outlook 372 Fundamentals of Corrosion and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Sectors 41Anil Bhardwaj2.1 Introduction 412.2 Material Degradation and Corrosion 412.3 Electromotive Force (EMF) Series and Galvanic Series 492.4 Forms of Corrosion 512.4.1 Uniform Corrosion 512.4.2 Galvanic or Two-Metal Corrosion 522.4.2.1 Factors Affecting Galvanic Corrosion 532.4.2.2 How to Reduce Galvanic Corrosion 542.4.2.3 Benefits of Galvanic Effect 542.4.3 Crevice Corrosion 542.4.4 Pitting 552.4.5 Intergranular Corrosion 572.4.6 Erosion–Corrosion 582.4.7 Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 602.4.8 Under-Deposit Corrosion (UDC) 612.4.9 Acid Corrosion 632.4.10 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 632.5 Factors Influencing Oilfield Corrosion 662.5.1 Free Water and Water Composition 662.5.2 Type of Oil 682.5.3 Gas Composition 692.5.4 Pressure Effect 702.5.5 Temperature Effect 712.5.6 Velocity Effect 712.6 Corrosion Control 722.6.1 Material Selection 722.6.2 Environment Control 732.6.3 Proper Design 732.6.4 Chemical Treatment 732.7 Conclusions and Outlook 743 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry 77Mohamed A. Migahed3.1 Introduction 773.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition 783.2.1 Influence of Temperature and Pressure 783.2.2 Influence of Flow Parameters 813.2.3 Effect of Natural Gases 833.2.3.1 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide 833.2.3.2 Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide 863.2.3.3 Effect of Carbon Dioxide 883.2.4 Effect of Cationic Species 913.2.5 Effect of Anionic Species 913.2.6 Effect of Microorganisms 963.2.7 Effect of pH 983.2.8 Effect of the Pre-corrosion 1003.3 Conclusions and Outlook 1014 Key Materials in Oil and Gas Production and the Choice of Inhibitors 111Thiago J. Mesquita and Hervé Marchebois4.1 Introduction 1114.2 Materials in Oil and Gas Industry 1124.2.1 Carbon Steel or CRA? 1124.2.2 Non-metallic Materials 1164.3 The Choice of Corrosion Inhibitor for Oil and Gas Production 1164.3.1 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Corrosion Inhibitor 1174.3.2 Laboratory Corrosion Inhibitor Selection 1194.4 Principles of CI Qualification Tests 1204.4.1 Bubble Test 1214.4.2 Partitioning Test 1224.4.2.1 Corrosivity of the Water Phase After Partitioning 1224.4.2.2 Titrability and Partitioning Coefficient 1234.4.3 Impact on the Process Test 1244.4.3.1 Emulsion Tendency 1244.4.3.2 Foaming Tendency 1254.4.4 Wheel Test 1254.4.5 HP Corrosion Test Loop 1274.4.6 HP Jet Impingement Test 1284.5 Conclusions and Outlook 1295 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations 135Anupama R. Prasad, Anupama Kunyankandy, and Abraham Joseph5.1 Introduction 1355.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss 1365.2.1 Historical Summary of Corrosion Cost Studies 1375.2.2 NACE–IMPACT: Global Corrosion Cost 1385.2.3 Global Corrosion Management–IMPACT Estimate 1395.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries 1405.3.1 Corrosion Attacks 1405.3.2 Failures and Risk Factors 1415.4 Fiscal Impacts 1425.4.1 Corrosion Costs a Lot 1435.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures 1445.5.1 Worthy Monitoring 1455.5.2 Protection in Proper Way 1465.6 Conclusions and Outlook 147Part II Choice of Inhibitors 1516 Corrosion Inhibitors for Acidizing Process in Oil and Gas Sectors 153Kashif R. Ansari, Dheeraj Singh Chauhan, Ambrish Singh, Viswanathan S. Saji, and Mumtaz A. Quraishi6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Acidizing Process 1546.2.1 Type of Oil Well Reservoirs 1546.2.2 Types of Acid Used 1556.2.3 Methods Used to Control Acidizing Process 1576.2.3.1 Retarded Acid Systems 1576.2.3.2 Gelled Acids 1576.2.3.3 Chemically Retarded Acids 1576.2.3.4 Emulsified Acids 1576.2.4 Acid Selection 1576.2.4.1 Rock-Dissolving Capacity of Acid 1586.2.4.2 Spending Time of Acid 1586.2.4.3 Solubility of Reaction Products 1586.2.4.4 Density and Viscosity 1586.2.4.5 Etching Pattern After Acidizing 1586.2.5 Types of Acidizing Process 1596.3 Application of Corrosion Inhibitors in Acidizing Processes 1606.4 Selected Acidizing Inhibitors 1696.5 Conclusions and Outlook 1707 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environment (CO2 Corrosion) 177Ubong Eduok and Jerzy Szpunar7.1 Introduction 1777.2 Mechanism of CO2 Corrosion 1787.3 Factors Affecting Sweet Corrosion 1797.3.1 Effects of Hydrogen Concentration (pH) and Temperature 1797.3.2 Effects of Flow Rate and Partial Pressure 1807.3.3 Effects of Molecular Oxygen and Iron Ions (Fe2+) Concentration 1817.4 Toward Inhibition and Control of Sweet Corrosion 1817.5 Altering Corrosion Kinetics with Corrosion Inhibitors 1827.6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environments 1837.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Smaller Molecules 1837.6.1.1 Imidazoline Derivatives 1837.6.1.2 Cyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 1957.6.1.3 Acyclic Non-imidazoline Compounds 1977.6.2 Corrosion Inhibitors Based on Macromolecules 2107.6.2.1 Polymers 2107.6.2.2 Plant Biomass Extracts 2117.6.2.3 Others 2187.7 Biocorrosion in Saturated CO2 Media 2187.8 Conclusions and Outlook 2198 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment (H2S Corrosion) 229Saviour A. Umoren, MosesM. Solomon, and Viswanathan S. Saji8.1 Introduction 2298.1.1 Impact of Corrosion on Economy and Life 2298.1.2 Background on Sour Corrosion 2308.1.3 Factors Influencing Sour Corrosion 2328.1.3.1 Effect of H2S Concentration 2328.1.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Exposure Duration 2338.1.3.3 Effect of Flow Rate 2338.1.3.4 Effect of H2S Partial Pressure 2338.1.3.5 Effect of Fluid Chemistry 2338.2 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment 2338.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors 2348.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors 2378.2.3 Gemini Surfactant-Based Inhibitors 2388.2.4 Polymer-Based Inhibitors 2448.3 Conclusions and Outlook 2479 Corrosion Inhibitors for Refinery Operations 255Yahya T. Al-Janabi9.1 Introduction 2559.2 Areas/Units Where Inhibitors are in Demand in Refineries 2579.2.1 Atmospheric and Vacuum Crude Oil Distillation Units 2579.2.2 Fluid Catalytic Cracking: Coker 2599.2.3 Hydroprocessing 2609.2.4 Catalytic Reforming 2609.2.5 Amine (Acid Gas Treatment) Plants 2629.2.6 Support Units 2629.3 Types of Aggressive Species Encountered in Refineries 2629.3.1 Air 2639.3.2 Water 2639.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 2639.3.4 Hydrogen Chloride 2639.3.5 Nitrogen Compounds 2649.3.6 Sour Water 2649.4 Common Types of Inhibitors Employed/Reported in Refinery Units 2649.4.1 Neutralizers 2649.4.2 Filming Inhibitors 2659.5 Conclusions and Outlook 26810 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields 271Vitalis I. Chukwuike and Rakesh C. Barik10.1 Introduction 27110.2 High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields 27210.3 Mechanism of High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Field 27310.3.1 High-Temperature Oxidation 27410.3.2 High-Temperature Sulfidation 27610.3.3 High-Temperature Carburization 27610.3.4 High-Temperature Chlorination 27710.3.5 High-Temperature Nitridation 27710.3.6 Sulfidation–Oxidation 27810.3.7 Corrosion Due to Formation of Ash, Deposits, and Molten Salts 27810.4 Categories and Choice of Inhibitors for Oil and Gas High-Temperature Corrosion 27810.4.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale and Ash Deposit Inhibitors 27810.4.2 High-Temperature Acidization Corrosion Inhibitors 27910.4.3 High-Temperature Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Inhibitors 28310.4.4 Other Inhibitors of High-Temperature Corrosion 28510.5 Conclusions and Outlook 28611 Experience in Using Chemicals to Mitigate Corrosion in Difficult Corrosive Environments in the Oil and Gas Industry 289Sunder Ramachandran11.1 Introduction 28911.2 Corrosion Inhibition for Systems with High Amounts of H2S 29011.3 Corrosion Inhibition for CO2 Tertiary Flood Systems and CO2 Sequestration 29211.4 Corrosion Inhibition in Deepwater Systems 29511.5 Corrosion Inhibition at High Temperatures 29611.6 Conclusions and Outlook 29712 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Industry 303Saviour A. Umoren and Moses M. Solomon12.1 Introduction 30312.2 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors 30412.2.1 Polymeric Inhibitors for Chemical Cleaning 30412.2.2 Inhibitors for Acidization Process 30812.2.3 Inhibitors for Sweet and Sour Environments 31112.2.4 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Applications 31512.3 Conclusions and Outlook 31513 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry 321Bhawna Chugh, Sanjeeve Thakur, and Ashish Kumar Singh13.1 Introduction 32113.2 Biofilm Formation 32213.3 Microbial Communities Related to Corrosion 32313.3.1 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 32313.3.2 Iron-Oxidizing Bacteria 32413.3.3 Acid-Producing Bacteria 32413.3.4 Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria 32513.3.5 Slime-Forming Bacteria 32513.4 Potential Prevention Strategies 32513.4.1 Periodic Pigging 32513.4.2 Cleanliness 32613.4.3 Cathodic Protection and Coatings 32613.4.4 Biocides/Inhibitors 32713.4.5 Biological Treatment 32813.5 Recent Developments of Chemical Inhibitors to Mitigate MIC 32913.6 Biological Inhibition of MIC 32913.6.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Nitrate-Reducing Bacteria 32913.6.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Regenerative Biofilms 33113.6.2.1 Corrosion Inhibition by Eviction of Corrosive Agents 33113.6.2.2 Corrosion Inhibition by Formation of Protective Barrier Layer 33213.6.2.3 Corrosion Inhibition via Antimicrobial Producing Biofilm 33213.6.2.4 Corrosion Possessing Biofilm Secreted Corrosion Inhibitor 33313.6.2.5 Corrosion Inhibition with Biofilm Secreted Bio Surfactant 33313.7 Conclusions and Outlook 33314 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Field Applications 339Benjamín Valdez-Salas, Michael Schorr-Wiener, and Nelson Cheng14.1 Introduction 33914.2 Magna International VPCIs 34014.3 Corrosion and Its Control in OGI 34114.3.1 Fundamentals of Corrosion 34114.3.2 Oil and Gas Industries 34214.3.3 OGI Sectors 34314.3.4 Corrosiveness of Oil and Gas Products 34514.3.5 Metals and Alloys in OGI 34614.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors 34614.4.1 Fundamentals 34614.4.2 VPCI Application in OGI 34814.4.3 Testing and Monitoring of VPCI 34914.4.4 Research and Development 35014.5 Conclusions and Outlook 35315 Mechanisms of Inhibitor Action: Passivation and Self-Healing 359Ivana Jevremoviæ, Ying-Hsuan Chen, Abdulrahman Altin, and Andreas Erbe15.1 Introduction 35915.2 Systematics and Phenomenology 36015.3 Surface Active Inhibitors 36415.4 Case Study (1): Imidazoline-Based Surfactant for Mitigation of Mild Steel Corrosion in the Presence of CO236715.5 Case Study (2): The Interaction of 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) with Copper 36915.6 Case Study (3): β-Cyclodextrin Facilitates Release of Inhibitors 37215.7 Conclusions and Outlook 375Part III Interaction with Co-additives 38316 Antiscalants and Their Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors 385Qiwei Wang and Tao Chen16.1 Introduction 38516.2 Scale Formation 38516.3 Scale Mitigation Strategy 38816.3.1 Flow Control 38816.3.2 Fluid Alteration 38816.3.3 Deposit Removal 38816.3.4 Chemical Inhibition 38816.4 Antiscalant Chemistry 38916.5 Antiscalant Function Mechanisms 39316.5.1 Nucleation Inhibition 39316.5.2 Crystal Growth Retardation 39416.5.3 Crystal Shape Modification 39516.5.4 Dispersion 39516.6 Antiscalant Treatment 39616.7 Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors 39716.7.1 Impact of Corrosion Inhibitor on Antiscalant Performance 39816.7.2 Impact of Antiscalant on Corrosion Inhibitor Performance 39916.8 Conclusions and Outlook 39917 Hydrate Inhibitors and Their Interferences in Corrosion Inhibition 407Yutaek Seo17.1 Introduction 40717.2 Gas Hydrate Blockage Formation Process 40717.3 Hydrates Inhibition Strategies with Alcohols or Glycols 40917.4 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors 41217.5 Interaction Between Hydrate and Corrosion Inhibitors 41417.6 Conclusions and Outlook 41618 Sulfide Scavengers and Their Interference in Corrosion Inhibition 421Viswanathan S. Saji18.1 Introduction 42118.2 Sulfide Scavengers: Types and Properties 42218.3 Corrosion and Fouling Inhibiting/Inducing Properties of Scavengers and Their Compatibility with Co-additives 42418.4 Conclusions and Outlook 427References 428Index 433

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