Confectionery and Chocolate Engineering

Ferenc Mohos chaired the Codex Alimentarius Hungaricus Confectionery Products Working Committee for two decades, whilst being Managing Director of his own consulting company, Food Quality 1992 Ltd., Budapest.  Presently, he is affiliated with the Szeged University and also the Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary.

• Preface xxiiiPreface to the second edition xxviiAcknowledgements xxixPart I: Theoretical introduction1 Principles of food engineering 31.1 Introduction 31.2 The Damköhler equations 61.3 Investigation of the Damköhler equations by means of similarity theory 81.4 Analogies 141.5 Dimensional analysis 161.6 System theoretical approaches to food engineering 191.7 Food safety and quality assurance 21Further reading 222 Characterization of substances used in the confectionery industry 232.1 Qualitative characterization of substances 232.2 Quantitative characterization of confectionery products 332.3 Preparation of recipes 492.4 Composition of chocolate confectioneries biscuits and wafers made for special nutritional purposes 56Further reading 603 Engineering properties of foods 613.1 Introduction 613.2 Density 613.3 Fundamental functions of thermodynamics 653.4 Latent heat and heat of reaction 713.5 Thermal conductivity 763.6 Thermal diffusivity and Prandtl number 783.7 Mass diffusivity and Schmidt number 813.8 Dielectric properties 853.9 Electrical conductivity 913.10 Infrared absorption properties 953.11 Physical characteristics of food powders 96Further reading 1074 The rheology of foods and sweets 1094.1 Rheology: its importance in the confectionery industry 1094.2 Stress and strain 1094.3 Solid behaviour 1154.4 Fluid behaviour 1204.5 Viscosity of solutions 1594.6 Viscosity of emulsions 1614.7 Viscosity of suspensions 1644.8 Rheological properties of gels 1664.9 Rheological properties of sweets 1714.10 Rheological properties of wheat flour doughs 1834.11 Relationship between food oral processing and rheology 193Further reading 1945 Introduction to food colloids 1975.1 The colloidal state 1975.2 Formation of colloids 1995.3 Properties of macromolecular colloids 2025.4 Properties of colloids of association 2085.5 Properties of interfaces 2105.6 Electrical properties of interfaces 2195.7 Theory of colloidal stability: the DLVO theory 2215.8 Stability and changes of colloids and coarse dispersions 2245.9 Emulsion instability 2335.10 Phase inversion 2435.11 Foams 2455.12 Gelation as a second-order phase transition 256Further reading 261Part II: Physical operations6 Comminution 2656.1 Changes during size reduction 2656.2 Rittinger’s surface theory 2666.3 Kick’s volume theory 2676.4 The third or Bond theory 2686.5 Energy requirement for comminution 2686.6 Particle size distribution of ground products 2696.7 Particle size distributions 2736.8 Kinetics of grinding 2756.9 Comminution by five-roll refiners 2766.10 Grinding by a melangeur 2806.11 Comminution by a stirred ball mill 284Further reading 2897 Mixing/kneading 2907.1 Technical solutions to the problem of mixing 2907.2 Power characteristics of a stirrer 2907.3 Mixing time characteristics of a stirrer 2927.4 Representative shear rate and viscosity for mixing 2927.5 Calculation of the Reynolds number for mixing 2927.6 Mixing of powders 2947.7 Mixing of fluids of high viscosity 3007.8 Effect of impeller speed on heat and mass transfer 3017.9 Mixing by blade mixers 3027.10 Mixing rolls 3037.11 Mixing of two liquids 304Further reading 3048 Solutions 3068.1 Preparation of aqueous solutions of carbohydrates 3068.2 Solubility of sucrose in water 3088.3 Aqueous solutions of sucrose and glucose syrup 3098.4 Aqueous sucrose solutions containing invert sugar 3118.5 Solubility of sucrose in the presence of starch syrup and invert sugar 3128.6 Rate of dissolution 3128.7 Solubility of bulk sweeteners 315Further reading 3169 Evaporation 3179.1 Theoretical background: Raoult’s law 3179.2 Boiling point of sucrose/water solutions at atmospheric pressure 3189.3 Application of a modification of Raoult’s law to calculate the boiling point of carbohydrate/water solutions at decreased pressure 3199.3.1 Sucrose/water solutions 3199.3.2 Dextrose/water solutions 3199.3.3 Starch syrup/water solutions 3199.3.4 Invert sugar solutions 3199.3.5 Approximate formulae for the elevation of the boiling point of aqueous sugar solutions 3209.4 Vapour pressure formulae for carbohydrate/water solutions 3239.5 Practical tests for controlling the boiling points of sucrose solutions 3309.6 Modelling of an industrial working process for hard boiled sweets 3319.7 Boiling points of bulk sweeteners 335Further reading 33510 Crystallization 33710.1 Introduction 33710.2 Crystallization from solution 33710.3 Crystallization from melts 35510.4 Crystal size distributions 37110.5 Batch crystallization 37410.6 Isothermal and non-isothermal recrystallization 37510.7 Methods for studying the supermolecular structure of fat melts 37610.8 Crystallization of glycerol esters: Polymorphism 38110.9 Crystallization of cocoa butter 38510.10 Crystallization of fat masses 39810.11 Crystallization of confectionery fats with a high trans-fat portion 41110.12 Modelling of chocolate cooling processes and tempering 41410.13 EU programme ProPraline 421Further reading 42211 Gelling emulsifying stabilizing and foam formation 42411.1 Hydrocolloids used in confectionery 42411.2 Agar 42411.3 Alginates 42911.4 Carrageenans 43211.5 Furcellaran 43711.6 Gum arabic 43711.7 Gum tragacanth 43811.8 Guaran gum 43911.9 Locust bean gum 43911.10 Pectin 44011.11 Starch 44411.12 Xanthan gum 44711.13 Gelatin 44811.14 Egg proteins 45311.15 Foam formation 458Further reading 46612 Transport 46812.1 Types of transport 46812.2 Calculation of flow rate of non-newtonian fluids 46812.3 Transporting dessert masses in long pipes 47012.4 Changes in pipe direction 47112.5 Laminar unsteady flow 47212.6 Transport of flour and sugar by airflow 472Further reading 47713 Pressing 47813.1 Applications of pressing in the confectionery industry 47813.2 Theory of pressing 47813.3 Cocoa liquor pressing 480Further reading 48214 Extrusion 48314.1 Flow through a converging die 48314.2 Feeders used for shaping confectionery pastes 49114.3 Extrusion cooking 49514.4 Roller extrusion 497Further reading 50015 Particle agglomeration: instantization and tabletting 50115.1 Theoretical background 50115.2 Processes of agglomeration 51215.3 Granulation by fluidization 51415.4 Tabletting 516Further reading 524Part III: Chemical and complex operations: stability of sweets: artisan chocolate and confectioneries16 Chemical operations (inversion and caramelization) ripening and complex operations 52716.1 Inversion and caramelization 52716.2 Acrylamide formation 53816.3 Alkalization of cocoa material 54016.4 Ripening 54216.5 Complex operations 54516.6 Drying/frying baking and roasting 562Further reading 57717 Water activity shelf life and storage 57917.1 Water activity 57917.2 Shelf life and storage 59417.3 Storage scheduling 601Further reading 60218 Stability of food systems 60418.1 Common use of the concept of food stability 60418.2 Stability theories: types of stability 60418.3 Shelf life as a case of marginal stability 60618.4 Stability matrix of a food system 607Further reading 60819 Artisan chocolate and confectioneries 60919.1 Actuality of artisanship in the confectionery practice 60919.2 The characteristics of the artisan products 60919.3 Raw materials and machinery 61019.4 The characteristics of the artisan confectionery technologies 61119.5 Managing an artisan workshop 61119.6 An easy and effective shaping technology for producing praline bars 612Further reading 614Part IV: Appendices1 Data on engineering properties of materials used and made by the confectionery industry 617A1.1 Carbohydrates 617A1.2 Oils and fats 626A1.3 Raw materials semi-finished products and finished products 6262 Comparison of Brix and Baumé concentrations of aqueous sucrose solutions at 20 ∘C(68 ∘F) 6433 Survey of fluid models: some trends in rheology 645A3.1 Decomposition method for calculation of flow rate of rheological models 645A3.1.1 The principle of the decomposition method 645A3.1.2 Bingham model 646A3.1.3 Casson models 647A3.1.4 Herschel–Bulkley–Porst–Markowitsch–Houwink (HBPMH) (or generalized Ostwald–de Waele) model 651A3.1.5 Ostwald–de Waele model (The power law) 653A3.2 Calculation of the friction coefficient (ξ) of non-newtonian fluids in the laminar region 653A3.3 Tensorial representation of constitutive equations: The fading memory of viscoelastic fluids 654A3.3.1 Objective derivatives and tensorial representation of constitutive equations 654A3.3.2 Boltzmann’s equation for the stress in viscoelastic solids: The fading memory of viscoelastic fluids 656A3.3.3 Constitutive equations of viscoelastic fluids 657A3.3.4 Application of the constitutive equations to dough rheology 658A3.3.5 Rheological properties at the cellular and macroscopic scale 659A3.4 Computer simulations in food rheology and science 660A3.5 Ultrasonic and photoacoustic testing 660A3.5.1 Ultrasonic testing 660A3.5.2 Photoacoustic testing 661Further reading 6614 Fractals 663A4.1 Irregular forms: fractal geometry 663A4.2 Box-counting dimension 664A4.3 Particle-counting method 665A4.4 Fractal backbone dimension 666Further reading 6665 Introduction to structure theory 668A5.1 The principles of the structure theory of blickle and seitz 668A5.1.1 Attributes and their relations: structure 668A5.1.2 Structure of attributes: a qualitative description 669A5.1.3 Hierarchic structures 670A5.1.4 Structure of measure: a quantitative description 670A5.1.5 Conservative elements: conservative substantial fragments 670A5.1.6 New way of looking 672A5.2 Modelling a part of fudge processing plant by structure theory 673Further reading 6746 Technological layouts 675Further reading 686References 687Index 737

"This book provides food engineers, scientists, technologists and students in research, industry, and food and chemical engineering-related courses with a scientific, theoretical description and analysis of confectionery manufacturing, opening up new possibilities for process and product improvement, relating to increased efficiency of operations, the use of new materials, and new applications for traditional raw materials" Expofairs, September 2017