Complex Biological Systems

Irina R. Fomina, PhD, is a Leading Researcher of Ecology and Physiology with the Russian Academy of Sciences, an assistant professor at the Lomonosov Moscow State University, and Vice President of Education at Biosphere Systems International Foundation in Tucson, Arizona. Dr. Fomina has done extensive research in the field of plants??? tolerance to global climate change and has published a monograph and dozens of articles and chapters in peer-reviewed journals and books. Karl Y. Biel, PhD, Dr. Sci., Professor, is a Leading Researcher of Ecology and Physiology with the Russian Academy of Sciences and President of Education at Biosphere Systems International Foundation in Tucson, Arizone. Professor Biel has over 20 years of experience in the USA conducting research at UCLA, the University of Wyoming, and Columbia University. He has participated in many international terrestrial, aquatic and marine expeditions, and, during his scientific career, he has published several books and over 300 articles in peer-reviewed journals. Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky, PhD, Dr. Sci., Professor, is a Leading Researcher at the Russian Academy of Sciences and a professor in the Department of Ecology at the Siberian Federal University in Russia. Dr. Soukhovolsky is an editorial board member of the journals, Lesovedenye (Russian Forest Science) and Conifers of Boreal Zone. During his scientific career he published more than 20 books and over 400 articles in peer-reviewed journals.

• Preface xviiAbstract xixContributing Authors xxiModeling and Approaches 11 Critical Impacts on Complex Biological and Ecological Systems: Basic Principles of Modeling 3Rem G. Khlebopros, Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky1.1 Complex Ecological Systems: The Principle of Decomposition, Taking into Account the Characteristic Times of Components 51.2 Analysis of Critical Impacts on Complex Systems and Extreme Principles of Modeling 121.2.1 Meta-Models of Phase Transitions for Describing Critical Events in Complex Systems 131.2.2 A Model of Outbreak as Second-Order Phase Transition 141.2.3 The Effect of Modifying Factors on the Development of an Outbreak 211.2.4 The Impact of Chemical Compounds on Biological Objects 23References 262 Criticality Concept and Some Principles for Sustainability in Closed Biological Systems and Biospheres 29Nicholas P. Yensen, Karl Y. Biel2.1 Introduction 312.2 History of Manmade Closed Ecosystems 322.3 Classification of Closed Biological Systems 332.3.1 Terminology 332.3.2 Micro Systems 352.3.3 Macro Systems 372.3.4 The Term Biosphere 392.3.5 Noosphere 402.4 The Concept of Criticality 402.4.1 The Volume-Criticality Principle 422.5 Microbiospheres: Descriptions and Discussion 442.5.1 The Ecosphere, a Synthetic Microbiosphere 442.6 Bioboxes 452.7 Experimental vs. Mathematical Models 452.7.1 Retrograde Phylogenetic Extinction 462.8 Humanospheres: Examples and Discussion 462.8.1 Biotubes 472.8.2 Shepelev, BIOS 1, 2, and 3 492.8.3 Biosphere 2 Laboratory 512.8.4 Closed System Missions 522.8.5 Open System Missions 532.8.6 The End of Biosphere 2 Laboratory or a New Era for Biosphere 2 Laboratory? 542.9 The Earth (Biosphere 1) Description and Discussion 552.9.1 Earth, a Sample Size of One 552.9.2 Biosphere 1 Properties 552.10 Oxygen Flux in Closed Systems 592.11 The Future of Closed System Work: Concepts and Strategies 612.11.1 Education, Research and Consortium Concepts 612.11.2 Ecosystems for Space 622.11.3 Closed System Challenges 632.12 General Conclusions 63Abbreviations 64Literature Cited and Used 64Appendix I. A Description of Biosphere 2 Laboratory 703 Accelerated Method for Measuring and Predicting Plants’ Stress Tolerance 73Karl Y. Biel, John N. Nishio3.1 Introduction 753.2 Background 753.2.1 Interaction between Anabolism and Catabolism 763.2.2 Cooperation between Photosynthesis and Respiration under Stress 783.3 How is Stress Tolerance Measured? 793.3.1 Testing Possible Artifacts of the Stress Test 813.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Chemical Additions on the Oxygen Evolution Stress Assay 843.4 Practical Applications 883.4.1 Whole Leaf Physiological Responses 903.4.2 Effect of Dark and Sodium Nitrate on the Photosynthetic Stress Resistance Index and Photosynthesis in Leaf Slices under Anoxic Conditions 973.4.3 Post-Illumination Respiration 983.5 Discussion 983.6 Perspectives for Application of Method 107Acknowledgments 109Abbreviations 110References 110Appendix I. Additional Materials and Methods 117Appendix II. Preliminary Analysis of the Utility of a Novel Stress Resistance Assay on Three Garst Lines of Zea mays, a C4 Plant 118Results 119General Conclusion 122Suggestions 122Hypotheses 1234 The Hypotheses of Halosynthesis, Photoprotection, Soil Remediation via Salt-Conduction, and Potential Medical Benefits 125Karl Y. Biel, Nicholas P. Yensen4.1 Introduction 1274.2 The Haloconductor Theory 1284.2.1 The Remediation of Saline Soils 1284.2.2 New Approach for Soil Remediation via Salt Conducting Plants 1304.2.3 Advantages of Conductor Plants for Soil Remediation 1334.2.4 Productivity Considerations 1344.2.5 Intriguing Productivity Curves in a Clonal Conductor Plant 1364.3 The Halosynthesis Hypothesis 1384.3.1 Concept Description and Terminology 1394.3.2 Hydraulic Considerations and Salt Gradient from Soil to Shoot Surface 1404.3.3 Salt Glands and Evapotranspirational Halosynthesis 1434.3.4 The Photoelectric Effect 1444.3.5 Epidermal Electro-Halosynthesis 1444.3.6 Salt-Gland Electro-Halosynthesis 1444.4 Physico- and Bio-Chemical Protection Synergisms 1484.4.1 Biochemical Protection against Oxygen Radicals 1514.5 A Case Study, Distichlis 1534.5.1 Ecophysiology 1534.5.2 Taxonomy and Geographic Distribution 1534.5.3 Root-Soil Restructuring Capacity 1544.5.4 Salt Tolerance 1554.5.5 Photosynthesis 1554.5.6 Ammonia Nutrition as a Protector against Salinity 1574.5.7 Soil Salt Removal and Benefits to Changes in Soil Properties 1584.6 Potential Medical Benefit of Photo-Halosynthesis 1594.7 Predictions and Potential Tests of Hypotheses 1634.7.1 Salt Conduction 1634.7.2 Halodispersion 1654.7.3 Metabolism 1664.7.4 Protection 1664.7.5 Halosynthesis 1664.8 General Conclusions 167Acknowledgments 167References 167 5 Protective Role of Silicon in Living Organisms 175Vladimir V. Matichenkov, Irina R. Fomina, Karl Y. Biel5.1 Introduction 1765.1.1 Agriculture 1765.1.2 Medicine 1775.1.3 Microorganisms and Plants 1775.2 Forms of Silicon 1795.3 Silicon Cycle in Soil–Plant System 1825.4 Silicon and Flora 1835.4.1 Localization of Silicon in Plants 1845.4.2 Forms of Silicon in Plants 1875.4.3 Silicon and Water Storage in Plants 1885.5 Silicon and Plants’ Resistance to Extreme Environments 1895.6 Silicon as Matrix for Organic Compounds Synthesis 1915.6.1 Hypothesis on Silicon Participation in Protection of Living Organisms under Stress Conditions 1925.6.1.1 Premises of Hypothesis 1925.6.1.2 Hypothesis 1955.7 New Technologies 1975.8 General Conclusion 198Acknowledgments 199References 1996 Methanol as Example of Volatile Mediators Providing Plants’ Stress Tolerance 209Karl Y. Biel, Irina R. Fomina6.1 Introduction 2116.2 Methanol Application for the Regulation of Productivity 2126.3 Emission of Methanol from Plants 2136.3.1 Factors Affecting the Methanol Emission 2146.3.2 Methanol Sources in Plants 2166.3.3 Pectin Methylesterases 2166.3.4 Utilization of Methanol by Plants 2186.3.5 Ethanol-Water-Soluble Fraction in Different Parts of Plants 2196.3.6 Ethanol-Water-Insoluble Fractions in Plants 2226.3.7 DNA Methylation in Plants 2236.4 Hypothesis of Methanol Influence on Different Levels of Cell Metabolism in C3 Plants 2266.5 Conclusion 231Acknowledgments 231Abbreviations 232References 232Experiments 2497 Patterns of Carbon Metabolism within Leaves 251Karl Y. Biel, Irina R. Fomina, Galina N. Nazarova, Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky, Rem G. Khlebopros, John N. Nishio7.1 Introduction 2537.2 Interactions among Light, Leaf Anatomy, the Metabolic Activity, and Environmental Stress Tolerance across Leaves 2537.2.1 Anatomy and Pattern of Enzymes within the Leaf of Spinacia oleracea 2557.2.1.1 Leaf Anatomy 2557.2.1.2 What are the Roles of the Different Cells? 2597.2.2 Enzyme Activity 2637.2.2.1 How Does Inverting the Leaves Alter the Distribution of Enzyme Activity within Spinacia oleracea Leaf? 2637.2.2.2 Summary of Enzyme Activity across Leaves 2677.2.2.3 Functional Significance to Profiles of Enzyme Activity across Spinacia oleracea Leaves 2687.2.3 CO2/O2 Gas Exchange 2717.2.3.1 CO2 Gas Exchange 2717.2.3.2 HCO3 –-Dependent Oxygen Evolution 2747.2.4 Enzyme Activity, Carbon Metabolism, and Stress Tolerance across Spinacia oleracea Leaves 2767.2.5 Light Regulation of Photosynthetic Enzyme Activity across Leaves 2817.3 Model of Optimal Photosynthesis within a Mesophytic Leaf 2827.4 General Conclusion 287Acknowledgments 288References 2888 4-Hydroxyphenethyl Alcohol and Dihydroquercetin Increase Adaptive Potential of Barley Plants under Soil Flooding Conditions 301Tamara I. Balakhnina8.1 Introduction 3028.1.1 Effect of Soil Flooding on Plants 3028.2 Effect of 4-Hydroxyphenethyl Alcohol on Growth and Adaptive Potential of Barley Plants at Optimal Soil Watering and Flooding 3048.2.1 Plant Reactions 3048.2.1.1 Seed Germination 3048.2.1.2 Plant Growth 3058.2.1.3 Lipid Peroxidation Intensity 3088.2.1.4 Guaiacol Peroxidase Activity 3098.2.1.5 Discussion 3118.3 Dihydroquercetin Protects Barley Seeds against Mold and Increases Seedling Adaptive Potential Under Soil Flooding 3138.3.1 Plant Reactions 3138.3.1.1 Seed Germination 3138.3.1.2 Growth Parameters 3138.3.1.3 Intensity of Lipid Peroxidation 3168.3.1.4 Activity of Ascorbate Peroxidase 3188.3.1.5 Discussion 320Acknowledgments 322Abbreviations 322References 3239 Cooperation of Photosynthetic and Nitrogen Metabolisms 329Anatoly A. Ivanov, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov9.1 Introduction 3319.2 Carbon Uptake and Rubisco 3329.2.1 Dependence of Carbon Assimilation on Nitrogen Supply 3349.3 Alternative Electron Acceptors in Photosynthesis 3369.4 Nitrogen Metabolism 3379.4.1 Primary Assimilation of Inorganic Nitrogen 3379.4.1.1 Nitrate Reductase 3399.4.1.2 Ferredoxin-Dependent Nitrite Reductase 3429.4.1.3 Glutamine Synthetase/Glutamate Synthase (GS/GOGAT) Cycle 3439.4.1.4 Glutamate Dehydrogenase 3469.4.2 Relationship of Photorespiration and Nitrogen Metabolism 3469.5 Relationship of Carbon and Nitrogen Metabolism in Stress Conditions 3499.5.1 High CO2 Concentration in the Atmosphere 3499.5.1.1 Plants’ Growth 3499.5.1.2 Rubisco Content 3509.5.1.3 Photosynthetic Acclimation 3519.5.1.4 Photosynthesis and Nitrogen Content 3539.5.1.5 Metabolic Changes 3559.5.2 Low CO2 Concentration in the Atmosphere 3609.5.3 Water Stress 3689.5.3.1 Osmotic Homeostasis 3689.5.3.2 Variability of Plant Response to Drought 3699.5.3.3 Reactive Oxygen Species 3709.5.3.4 Metabolic Changes 3719.5.3.5 Stomata Conductivity and Rubisco Activity 3719.5.3.6 Enzymes of Nitrogen Metabolism 3739.5.3.7 Sucrose-Phosphate Synthase 3759.5.3.8 Increased Plant Resistance to Drought by Nitrogen Supply 3769.5.4 Salt Stress 3779.5.4.1 Assimilation of Nitrogen in Salinity Conditions 3789.5.4.2 Isocitrate Dehydrogenase and Fd-GOGAT 3799.5.4.3 Proline Accumulation 3809.5.4.4 Photosynthesis, Photorespiration and Reactive Oxygen Species 3809.6 Conclusion 381Abbreviations 382References 38210 Physiological Parameters of Fucus vesiculosus and Fucus serratus in the Barents Sea during a Tidal Cycle 439Inna V. Ryzhik, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov, Evgeniya F. Markovskaya, Mikhail V. Makarov10.1 Introduction 44110.2 Materials and Methods 44210.3 Results 44410.3.1 Water Content in Algal Thalli 44410.3.2 The Rate of Photosynthesis 44510.3.3 Photosynthetic Pigments: Content and Proportion 44510.3.4 Dependence of the Photosynthetic Rate on the Water Content in the Thallus 44610.3.5 Potential Rate of Photosynthesis of Fucus vesiculosus 44610.3.6 Lipid Peroxidation and Catalase Activities in Fucus vesiculosus 44810.4 Discussion 449Abbreviations 455References 455History and Biography – Tribute 46111 Benson’s Protocol 463Arthur M. Nonomura, Karl Y. Biel, Irina R. Fomina, Wai-Ki “Frankie” Lam, Daniel P. Brummel, Allison Lauria, Michael S. McBride11.1 Introduction 46511.2 Benson–Bassham–Calvin and Lectin Cycles 46811.3 Types of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 47111.4 Regulation of Photosynthates 47111.5 The Origin and Development of the Carbon Reactions of Photosynthesis 47211.6 The Next Steps 47311.6.1 Materials and Methods 47411.6.2 Results 48011.6.3 Conclusion 49811.7 Felicitation 499References 50212 Recollection of Yuri S. Karpilov’s Scientific and Social Life 509Karl Y. Biel, Irina R. Fomina12.1 Introduction 51012.2 Some Contradictory Discoveries 51012.3 Official Statement of a Young Scientist in the USSR and His Deed 51112.4 From the Memories, by Karl Biel 51512.5 Australian Scientist Professor Barry Osmond Visited Karpilov’s Laboratory in 1971 52512.6 Moving from Tiraspol to Pushchino, Moscow Region, to the Institute of Photosynthesis of the USSR Academy of Sciences 52712.7 International Botanical Congress… 53012.8 And after That, Soon… Unexpected Tragedy 53012.9 Short Biography of Yuri S. Karpilov 533Acknowledgments 534Abbreviations 534References 53413 Dr. Nicholas Yensen’s Curriculum Vitae 543Karl Y. Biel, Irina R. Fomina13.1 Introduction 54413.2 Biographical Note about Dr. Nicholas Patrick Yensen 54513.2.1 Education 54513.2.2 Teaching Experience 54513.2.3 Founder and Leader of Scientific Organizations 54613.2.4 Member of Board of Directors, Consultant, and Chairman 54613.2.5 Languages 54713.2.6 Oratorical Talent 54713.2.7 Dr. Yensen’s International Teamwork, Expeditions and Visitations 54713.2.8 Distinctions 54913.2.9 Articles, Videos and Documentaries about Dr. Yensen’s Work 54913.2.10 Skill and Avocation 55013.3 Conclusion 55013.4 Addendum 552Acknowledgements 552Publications (selected) 55314 Rem Khlebopros: Life in Science 557Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky, Irina R. Fomina14.1 Introduction 55814.2 Life in Science 55914.3 Selected Scientific Publications and Speeches by Rem G. Khlebopros 56614.3.1 Video-Interviews about Ecology in Krasnoyarsk 56614.3.2 Books 56614.3.3 Articles 567Acknowledgments 571Index 573