Jack P. Greene is Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at Johns Hopkins University and the author and editor of many books and articles on early modern colonial British America and the American Revolution. Among his recent books are Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (1992), Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (1994), Understanding the American Revolution: Issues and Actors (1995), and Interpreting Early America: Historiographical Essays (1996). J. R. Pole is Rhodes Professor Emeritus of American History and Institutions, St. Catherine’s College, Oxford, and a Fellow of the British Academy. His books include Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (1966), The Pursuit of Equality in American History (1978, second edition 1993), Paths to the American Past (1979), The Gift of Government: Political Responsibility from the English Restoration to American Independence (1983), and The American Constitution: For and Against (ed., 1987).

• List of maps and map acknowledgements xList of contributors xiIntroduction xiiiPART I: CONTEXT 101 The structure of British politics in the mid-eighteenth century 3W. A. Speck02 Metropolitan administration of the colonies, 1696–1775 8Ian K. Steele03 Intra-imperial communications, 1689–1775 14Richard R. Johnson04 The changing socio-economic and strategic importance of the colonies to the empire 19Alison G. Olson05 The political development of the colonies after the Glorious Revolution 29Alan Tully06 Population and family in early America 39Robert V. Wells07 Socio-economic development of the colonies 51Edwin J. Perkins08 Religion before the Revolution 60Edwin S. Gaustad09 The cultural development of the colonies 65Michal J. Rozbicki10 The emergence of civic culture in the colonies to about 1770 82David Shields11 Ideological background 88Isaac Kramnick12 The Amerindian population in 1763 94Eric HinderakerPART II: THEMES AND EVENTS, TO 1776 9913 The origins of the new colonial policy, 1748–1763 101Jack P. Greene14 The Seven Years’ War and its political legacy 112Thomas L. Purvis15 The Grenville program, 1763–1765 118Peter D. G. Thomas16 The Stamp Act crisis and its repercussions, including the Quartering Act controversy 123Peter D. G. Thomas17 The Townshend Acts crisis, 1767–1770 134Robert J. Chaffin18 The British Army in America, before 1775 151Douglas Edward Leach19 The West and the Amerindians, 1756–1776 157Peter Marshall20 Trade legislation and its enforcement, 1748–1776 165R. C. Simmons21 Ongoing disputes over the prerogative, 1763–1776 173Jack P. Greene22 Bishops and other ecclesiastical issues, to 1776 179Frederick V. Mills, Sr.23 Social protest and the revolutionary movement, 1765–1776 184Edward Countryman24 The tea crisis and its consequences, through 1775 195David L. Ammerman25 The crisis of Independence 206David L. Ammerman26 Development of a revolutionary organization, 1765–1775 216David W. Conroy27 Political mobilization, 1765–1776 222Rebecca Starr28 Identity and Independence 230Jack P. Greene29 Loyalism and neutrality 235Robert M. Calhoon30 Opposition in Britain 248Colin Bonwick31 Common Sense 254Jack Fruchtman, Jr.32 The Declaration of Independence 258Ronald HamowyPART III: THEMES AND EVENTS, FROM 1776 26333 Bills of rights and the first ten amendments to the Constitution 265Robert A. Rutland34 State constitution-making, through 1781 269Donald S. Lutz35 The Articles of Confederation, 1775–1783 281Jack N. Rakove36 The War for Independence, to Saratoga 287Don Higginbotham37 The War for Independence, after Saratoga 298Don Higginbotham38 The Continental Army 308Holly A. Mayer39 Militia, guerrilla warfare, tactics, and weaponry 314Mark V. Kwasny40 Naval operations during the War for Independence 320Clark G. Reynolds41 The First United States Navy 326James C. Bradford42 The home front during the War for Independence: the effect of labor shortages on commercial production in the Mid-Atlantic 332Michael V. Kennedy43 Resistance to the American Revolution 342Michael A. McDonnell44 Diplomacy of the Revolution, to 1783 352Jonathan R. Dull45 Confederation: state governments and their problems 362Edward Countryman46 The West: territory, states, and confederation 374Peter S. Onuf47 Demobilization and national defense 383E. Wayne Carp48 Currency, taxation, and finance, 1775–1787 388Robert A. Becker49 Foreign relations, after 1783 398Jonathan R. Dull50 Slavery and anti-slavery 402Sylvia R. Frey51 Amerindians and the new republic 413James H. Merrell52 The impact of the Revolution on the role, status, and experience of women 419Betty Wood53 The impact of the Revolution on education 427Melvin Yazawa54 The impact of the Revolution on social problems: poverty, insanity, and crime 435Melvin Yazawa55 The impact of the Revolution on church and state 444Robert M. Calhoon56 Law: continuity and reform 452J. R. Pole57 Confederation: movement for a stronger union 458Mark D. Kaplanoff58 The Federal Convention and the Constitution 470Mark D. Kaplanoff59 The debate over ratification of the Constitution 482Murray DryPART IV: EXTERNAL EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION 49560 Great Britain in the aftermath of the American Revolution 497Ian R. Christie61 The American Revolution in Canada 503Elizabeth Mancke62 The American Revolution and Ireland 511Maurice J. Bric63 The American Revolution and the sugar colonies, 1775–1783 515Selwyn H. H. Carrington64 The effects of the American Revolution on France and its empire 523David P. Geggus65 The impact of the American Revolution on Spain and Portugal and their empires 531Kenneth Maxwell66 The influence of the American Revolution in the Netherlands 545Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt and Wim Klooster67 The influence of the American Revolution in Germany 550Horst Dippel68 The influence of the American Revolution in Russia 554Hans RoggerPART V: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE REVOLUTION 55769 The economic and demographic consequences of the American Revolution 559Mary M. Schweitzer70 The religious consequences of the Revolution 579Robert M. Calhoon71 The cultural effects of the Revolution 586Norman S. Grabo72 The effects of the Revolution on language 595John Algeo73 Medicine before and after the Revolution 600Mary E. Fissell74 The construction of gender in a republican world 605Ruth H. Bloch75 The construction of race in republican America 610James Sidbury76 The construction of social status in revolutionary America 617Christine DanielsPART VI: CONCEPTS 62577 Liberty 627Elise Marienstras78 Equality 633J. R. Pole79 Property 638Alan Freeman and Elizabeth Mensch80 The rule of law 645John P. Reid81 Consent 650Donald S. Lutz82 Happiness 655Jan Lewis83 Suffrage and representation 661Rosemarie Zagarri84 Republicanism 668Robert E. Shalhope85 Sovereignty 674Peter S. Onuf86 Nationality and citizenship 680Elise Marienstras87 The separation of powers 686Maurice J. C. Vile88 Rights 691Michael Zuckert89 Virtue 696James T. Kloppenberg90 Interests 701Cathy MatsonChronology 707compiled by Steven J. SarsonIndex 745

"Professors Greene and Pole have succeeded in gathering a star-studded cast of scholars to interpret and analyze the American Revolution. General readers as well as teachers will find this volume of inestimable value." Joyce Appleby, University of California at Los Angeles "This immensely helpful guide will be useful for seasoned students of the revolution as well as beginners. Brief bibliographies give quick access to the best current work; the essays provide relevant factual material; and the reader gets the informed judgment of an expert." Richard Lyman Bushman, Columbia University "The cumulative effect of the contributions is to leave the reader with no doubt of the importance of the American Revolution, not just to the history of the United States and North America, but to the whole Atlantic world and beyond." History

Jack P. Greene is Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at Johns Hopkins University and the author and editor of many books and articles on early modern colonial British America and the American Revolution. Among his recent books are Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (1992), Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (1994), Understanding the American Revolution: Issues and Actors (1995), and Interpreting Early America: Historiographical Essays (1996). J. R. Pole is Rhodes Professor Emeritus of American History and Institutions, St. Catherine’s College, Oxford, and a Fellow of the British Academy. His books include Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (1966), The Pursuit of Equality in American History (1978, second edition 1993), Paths to the American Past (1979), The Gift of Government: Political Responsibility from the English Restoration to American Independence (1983), and The American Constitution: For and Against (ed., 1987).

• List of maps and map acknowledgements xList of contributors xiIntroduction xiiiPART I: CONTEXT 101 The structure of British politics in the mid-eighteenth century 3W. A. Speck02 Metropolitan administration of the colonies, 1696–1775 8Ian K. Steele03 Intra-imperial communications, 1689–1775 14Richard R. Johnson04 The changing socio-economic and strategic importance of the colonies to the empire 19Alison G. Olson05 The political development of the colonies after the Glorious Revolution 29Alan Tully06 Population and family in early America 39Robert V. Wells07 Socio-economic development of the colonies 51Edwin J. Perkins08 Religion before the Revolution 60Edwin S. Gaustad09 The cultural development of the colonies 65Michal J. Rozbicki10 The emergence of civic culture in the colonies to about 1770 82David Shields11 Ideological background 88Isaac Kramnick12 The Amerindian population in 1763 94Eric HinderakerPART II: THEMES AND EVENTS, TO 1776 9913 The origins of the new colonial policy, 1748–1763 101Jack P. Greene14 The Seven Years’ War and its political legacy 112Thomas L. Purvis15 The Grenville program, 1763–1765 118Peter D. G. Thomas16 The Stamp Act crisis and its repercussions, including the Quartering Act controversy 123Peter D. G. Thomas17 The Townshend Acts crisis, 1767–1770 134Robert J. Chaffin18 The British Army in America, before 1775 151Douglas Edward Leach19 The West and the Amerindians, 1756–1776 157Peter Marshall20 Trade legislation and its enforcement, 1748–1776 165R. C. Simmons21 Ongoing disputes over the prerogative, 1763–1776 173Jack P. Greene22 Bishops and other ecclesiastical issues, to 1776 179Frederick V. Mills, Sr.23 Social protest and the revolutionary movement, 1765–1776 184Edward Countryman24 The tea crisis and its consequences, through 1775 195David L. Ammerman25 The crisis of Independence 206David L. Ammerman26 Development of a revolutionary organization, 1765–1775 216David W. Conroy27 Political mobilization, 1765–1776 222Rebecca Starr28 Identity and Independence 230Jack P. Greene29 Loyalism and neutrality 235Robert M. Calhoon30 Opposition in Britain 248Colin Bonwick31 Common Sense 254Jack Fruchtman, Jr.32 The Declaration of Independence 258Ronald HamowyPART III: THEMES AND EVENTS, FROM 1776 26333 Bills of rights and the first ten amendments to the Constitution 265Robert A. Rutland34 State constitution-making, through 1781 269Donald S. Lutz35 The Articles of Confederation, 1775–1783 281Jack N. Rakove36 The War for Independence, to Saratoga 287Don Higginbotham37 The War for Independence, after Saratoga 298Don Higginbotham38 The Continental Army 308Holly A. Mayer39 Militia, guerrilla warfare, tactics, and weaponry 314Mark V. Kwasny40 Naval operations during the War for Independence 320Clark G. Reynolds41 The First United States Navy 326James C. Bradford42 The home front during the War for Independence: the effect of labor shortages on commercial production in the Mid-Atlantic 332Michael V. Kennedy43 Resistance to the American Revolution 342Michael A. McDonnell44 Diplomacy of the Revolution, to 1783 352Jonathan R. Dull45 Confederation: state governments and their problems 362Edward Countryman46 The West: territory, states, and confederation 374Peter S. Onuf47 Demobilization and national defense 383E. Wayne Carp48 Currency, taxation, and finance, 1775–1787 388Robert A. Becker49 Foreign relations, after 1783 398Jonathan R. Dull50 Slavery and anti-slavery 402Sylvia R. Frey51 Amerindians and the new republic 413James H. Merrell52 The impact of the Revolution on the role, status, and experience of women 419Betty Wood53 The impact of the Revolution on education 427Melvin Yazawa54 The impact of the Revolution on social problems: poverty, insanity, and crime 435Melvin Yazawa55 The impact of the Revolution on church and state 444Robert M. Calhoon56 Law: continuity and reform 452J. R. Pole57 Confederation: movement for a stronger union 458Mark D. Kaplanoff58 The Federal Convention and the Constitution 470Mark D. Kaplanoff59 The debate over ratification of the Constitution 482Murray DryPART IV: EXTERNAL EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION 49560 Great Britain in the aftermath of the American Revolution 497Ian R. Christie61 The American Revolution in Canada 503Elizabeth Mancke62 The American Revolution and Ireland 511Maurice J. Bric63 The American Revolution and the sugar colonies, 1775–1783 515Selwyn H. H. Carrington64 The effects of the American Revolution on France and its empire 523David P. Geggus65 The impact of the American Revolution on Spain and Portugal and their empires 531Kenneth Maxwell66 The influence of the American Revolution in the Netherlands 545Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt and Wim Klooster67 The influence of the American Revolution in Germany 550Horst Dippel68 The influence of the American Revolution in Russia 554Hans RoggerPART V: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE REVOLUTION 55769 The economic and demographic consequences of the American Revolution 559Mary M. Schweitzer70 The religious consequences of the Revolution 579Robert M. Calhoon71 The cultural effects of the Revolution 586Norman S. Grabo72 The effects of the Revolution on language 595John Algeo73 Medicine before and after the Revolution 600Mary E. Fissell74 The construction of gender in a republican world 605Ruth H. Bloch75 The construction of race in republican America 610James Sidbury76 The construction of social status in revolutionary America 617Christine DanielsPART VI: CONCEPTS 62577 Liberty 627Elise Marienstras78 Equality 633J. R. Pole79 Property 638Alan Freeman and Elizabeth Mensch80 The rule of law 645John P. Reid81 Consent 650Donald S. Lutz82 Happiness 655Jan Lewis83 Suffrage and representation 661Rosemarie Zagarri84 Republicanism 668Robert E. Shalhope85 Sovereignty 674Peter S. Onuf86 Nationality and citizenship 680Elise Marienstras87 The separation of powers 686Maurice J. C. Vile88 Rights 691Michael Zuckert89 Virtue 696James T. Kloppenberg90 Interests 701Cathy MatsonChronology 707compiled by Steven J. SarsonIndex 745

"Professors Greene and Pole have succeeded in gathering a star-studded cast of scholars to interpret and analyze the American Revolution. General readers as well as teachers will find this volume of inestimable value." Joyce Appleby, University of California at Los Angeles "This immensely helpful guide will be useful for seasoned students of the revolution as well as beginners. Brief bibliographies give quick access to the best current work; the essays provide relevant factual material; and the reader gets the informed judgment of an expert." Richard Lyman Bushman, Columbia University "The cumulative effect of the contributions is to leave the reader with no doubt of the importance of the American Revolution, not just to the history of the United States and North America, but to the whole Atlantic world and beyond." History

Jack P. Greene is Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at Johns Hopkins University and the author and editor of many books and articles on early modern colonial British America and the American Revolution. Among his recent books are Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History (1992), Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (1994), Understanding the American Revolution: Issues and Actors (1995), and Interpreting Early America: Historiographical Essays (1996). J. R. Pole is Rhodes Professor Emeritus of American History and Institutions, St. Catherine’s College, Oxford, and a Fellow of the British Academy. His books include Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (1966), The Pursuit of Equality in American History (1978, second edition 1993), Paths to the American Past (1979), The Gift of Government: Political Responsibility from the English Restoration to American Independence (1983), and The American Constitution: For and Against (ed., 1987).

• List of maps and map acknowledgements xList of contributors xiIntroduction xiiiPART I: CONTEXT 101 The structure of British politics in the mid-eighteenth century 3W. A. Speck02 Metropolitan administration of the colonies, 1696–1775 8Ian K. Steele03 Intra-imperial communications, 1689–1775 14Richard R. Johnson04 The changing socio-economic and strategic importance of the colonies to the empire 19Alison G. Olson05 The political development of the colonies after the Glorious Revolution 29Alan Tully06 Population and family in early America 39Robert V. Wells07 Socio-economic development of the colonies 51Edwin J. Perkins08 Religion before the Revolution 60Edwin S. Gaustad09 The cultural development of the colonies 65Michal J. Rozbicki10 The emergence of civic culture in the colonies to about 1770 82David Shields11 Ideological background 88Isaac Kramnick12 The Amerindian population in 1763 94Eric HinderakerPART II: THEMES AND EVENTS, TO 1776 9913 The origins of the new colonial policy, 1748–1763 101Jack P. Greene14 The Seven Years’ War and its political legacy 112Thomas L. Purvis15 The Grenville program, 1763–1765 118Peter D. G. Thomas16 The Stamp Act crisis and its repercussions, including the Quartering Act controversy 123Peter D. G. Thomas17 The Townshend Acts crisis, 1767–1770 134Robert J. Chaffin18 The British Army in America, before 1775 151Douglas Edward Leach19 The West and the Amerindians, 1756–1776 157Peter Marshall20 Trade legislation and its enforcement, 1748–1776 165R. C. Simmons21 Ongoing disputes over the prerogative, 1763–1776 173Jack P. Greene22 Bishops and other ecclesiastical issues, to 1776 179Frederick V. Mills, Sr.23 Social protest and the revolutionary movement, 1765–1776 184Edward Countryman24 The tea crisis and its consequences, through 1775 195David L. Ammerman25 The crisis of Independence 206David L. Ammerman26 Development of a revolutionary organization, 1765–1775 216David W. Conroy27 Political mobilization, 1765–1776 222Rebecca Starr28 Identity and Independence 230Jack P. Greene29 Loyalism and neutrality 235Robert M. Calhoon30 Opposition in Britain 248Colin Bonwick31 Common Sense 254Jack Fruchtman, Jr.32 The Declaration of Independence 258Ronald HamowyPART III: THEMES AND EVENTS, FROM 1776 26333 Bills of rights and the first ten amendments to the Constitution 265Robert A. Rutland34 State constitution-making, through 1781 269Donald S. Lutz35 The Articles of Confederation, 1775–1783 281Jack N. Rakove36 The War for Independence, to Saratoga 287Don Higginbotham37 The War for Independence, after Saratoga 298Don Higginbotham38 The Continental Army 308Holly A. Mayer39 Militia, guerrilla warfare, tactics, and weaponry 314Mark V. Kwasny40 Naval operations during the War for Independence 320Clark G. Reynolds41 The First United States Navy 326James C. Bradford42 The home front during the War for Independence: the effect of labor shortages on commercial production in the Mid-Atlantic 332Michael V. Kennedy43 Resistance to the American Revolution 342Michael A. McDonnell44 Diplomacy of the Revolution, to 1783 352Jonathan R. Dull45 Confederation: state governments and their problems 362Edward Countryman46 The West: territory, states, and confederation 374Peter S. Onuf47 Demobilization and national defense 383E. Wayne Carp48 Currency, taxation, and finance, 1775–1787 388Robert A. Becker49 Foreign relations, after 1783 398Jonathan R. Dull50 Slavery and anti-slavery 402Sylvia R. Frey51 Amerindians and the new republic 413James H. Merrell52 The impact of the Revolution on the role, status, and experience of women 419Betty Wood53 The impact of the Revolution on education 427Melvin Yazawa54 The impact of the Revolution on social problems: poverty, insanity, and crime 435Melvin Yazawa55 The impact of the Revolution on church and state 444Robert M. Calhoon56 Law: continuity and reform 452J. R. Pole57 Confederation: movement for a stronger union 458Mark D. Kaplanoff58 The Federal Convention and the Constitution 470Mark D. Kaplanoff59 The debate over ratification of the Constitution 482Murray DryPART IV: EXTERNAL EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION 49560 Great Britain in the aftermath of the American Revolution 497Ian R. Christie61 The American Revolution in Canada 503Elizabeth Mancke62 The American Revolution and Ireland 511Maurice J. Bric63 The American Revolution and the sugar colonies, 1775–1783 515Selwyn H. H. Carrington64 The effects of the American Revolution on France and its empire 523David P. Geggus65 The impact of the American Revolution on Spain and Portugal and their empires 531Kenneth Maxwell66 The influence of the American Revolution in the Netherlands 545Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt and Wim Klooster67 The influence of the American Revolution in Germany 550Horst Dippel68 The influence of the American Revolution in Russia 554Hans RoggerPART V: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE REVOLUTION 55769 The economic and demographic consequences of the American Revolution 559Mary M. Schweitzer70 The religious consequences of the Revolution 579Robert M. Calhoon71 The cultural effects of the Revolution 586Norman S. Grabo72 The effects of the Revolution on language 595John Algeo73 Medicine before and after the Revolution 600Mary E. Fissell74 The construction of gender in a republican world 605Ruth H. Bloch75 The construction of race in republican America 610James Sidbury76 The construction of social status in revolutionary America 617Christine DanielsPART VI: CONCEPTS 62577 Liberty 627Elise Marienstras78 Equality 633J. R. Pole79 Property 638Alan Freeman and Elizabeth Mensch80 The rule of law 645John P. Reid81 Consent 650Donald S. Lutz82 Happiness 655Jan Lewis83 Suffrage and representation 661Rosemarie Zagarri84 Republicanism 668Robert E. Shalhope85 Sovereignty 674Peter S. Onuf86 Nationality and citizenship 680Elise Marienstras87 The separation of powers 686Maurice J. C. Vile88 Rights 691Michael Zuckert89 Virtue 696James T. Kloppenberg90 Interests 701Cathy MatsonChronology 707compiled by Steven J. SarsonIndex 745

"Professors Greene and Pole have succeeded in gathering a star-studded cast of scholars to interpret and analyze the American Revolution. General readers as well as teachers will find this volume of inestimable value." Joyce Appleby, University of California at Los Angeles "This immensely helpful guide will be useful for seasoned students of the revolution as well as beginners. Brief bibliographies give quick access to the best current work; the essays provide relevant factual material; and the reader gets the informed judgment of an expert." Richard Lyman Bushman, Columbia University "The cumulative effect of the contributions is to leave the reader with no doubt of the importance of the American Revolution, not just to the history of the United States and North America, but to the whole Atlantic world and beyond." History