Communication for Rural Innovation

Cees Leeuwis is the author of Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Extension, 3rd Edition, published by Wiley.Anne Willem van den Ban was a Dutch scholar, whose work focused on agricultural extension.

• Preface xThe CTA xiiPart 1 Rethinking Extension 11 Introduction 31.1 Challenges for agricultural extension practice 31.1.1 Challenges for farmers and agriculture at large 31.1.2 Reinventing extension 111.1.3 In conclusion: a new societal function for extension 171.2 Objectives and outline of this book 18Questions for discussion 212 From extension to communication for innovation 222.1 Historical roots and evolving conceptions of extension 222.1.1 Origins, early meanings and international terminology 222.1.2 Evolving definitions 232.2 Different types of communication services and strategies 292.2.1 Basic rationale of different communication services and strategies 312.3 Agricultural knowledge systems and other extension-related concepts 36Questions for discussion 393 The ethics and politics of communication for innovation 403.1 The political implications of communication for innovation 403.2 The acceptability of government communicative intervention 423.3 The acceptability of non-governmental communicative intervention 433.4 Professional standards 453.5 Dilemmas regarding ethics and politics: an example 46Questions for discussion 484 The role of communicative intervention in policy planning: instrumental and interactive approaches 494.1 Top–down planning and instrumental communication 494.1.1 ‘Blueprint’ planning and problem solving 494.1.2 The instrumental model of communicative intervention 504.1.3 In conclusion 534.2 Process management and interactive communication 534.2.1 Process management towards innovation 534.2.2 Arguments for an interactive model of communicative intervention 554.2.3 In conclusion 564.3 Shortcomings and conditions: the relation between interactive and instrumental approaches 57Questions for discussion 58Part 2 The Relations Between Human Practice, Knowledge and Communication 595 Understanding human practices: the example of farming 615.1 Different levels and domains of farming practice 615.1.1 Farming practices at different hierarchical levels 625.1.2 Different domains of farming practice 635.1.3 Farming practices at different points in time 645.2 Understanding the social nature of technical practices 655.2.1 Evaluative frame of reference: the basis for reasoning about practices 675.2.2 Perceived effectiveness of the social environment 715.2.3 Perceived self-efficacy 745.2.4 Social relationships and perceived social pressure 765.2.5 The dynamics within the model 795.3 Implications for communication for innovation 865.3.1 The central role of knowledge and the need to be modest 865.3.2 The relationship with different communication strategies and functions 865.3.3 Communicative intervention must be ‘tuned’ to other communication processes 885.3.4 The need to anticipate diversity among farmers 895.3.5 Linking multiple socio-technical innovation processes 895.3.6 The multi-layered character of technology and policy acceptance 905.3.7 The illusion of supporting rational decision-making 915.3.8 The need for analytical capacity in communication for innovation organisations 92Questions for discussion 926 Knowledge and perception 946.1 Knowledge, perception, information and wisdom 946.2 Life-worlds: the locus of discursive (explicit) and practical (tacit) knowledge 966.3 Multiple realities and knowledge construction 986.4 Knowledge and ignorance 1006.5 Epistemic cultures: scientists’ versus non-scientists’ knowledge 1056.6 Knowledge, power, agency and structure 1076.7 Practical relevance: the case of farmer experimentation in environmental co-operatives 110Questions for discussion 1167 Communication and the construction of meaning 1177.1 What is communication? 1177.2 Three models of communication 1217.3 Some basic anticipation problems in communicative intervention 123Questions for discussion 125Part 3 Innovation as a Process of Network Building, Social Learning and Negotiation 1278 Changing perspectives on innovation 1298.1 The ‘adoption and diffusion of innovations’ tradition 1298.1.1 Key conclusions drawn from adoption and diffusion research 1308.1.2 Critical reflections and practical limitations 1348.2 Innovations and processes of innovation design 1408.2.1 The multi-dimensional character of innovations 1418.2.2 Building effective linkages and networks in an evolutionary process 1418.2.3 The need for temporary protection in innovation processes 1428.2.4 Different types of innovations and innovation decisions 1438.2.5 The problem-driven character of innovation 1438.2.6 The ‘hidden’ nature of building blocks for innovation 1448.2.7 Basic tasks in interactive innovation design processes 144Questions for discussion 1459 Social and individual learning 1479.1 A basic model for adult experiential learning 1499.2 Levels of learning, and the relationship with decision-making 1519.3 The centrality of relevant feedback 1539.4 Factors that may affect learning (pre-conditions and obstacles) 1559.5 Aspects of learning 161Questions for discussion 16210 Negotiation within interactive processes 16310.1 Why look at negotiation? 16310.1.1 Conflict-related frictions in interactive innovation processes: six cases 16310.1.2 Towards a better language to deal with conflict 16810.2 Distributive and integrative negotiations 16910.2.1 Facilitation tasks in integrative negotiations 17010.2.2 The status of facilitation tasks and guidelines 17110.2.3 Layers or types of conflict 17110.3 Pre-conditions for integrative negotiation 17210.3.1 Divergence of interests 17310.3.2 Mutual interdependence 17310.3.3 Ability to communicate 17410.3.4 Institutional space for using innovative negotiation results 17410.3.5 An implication: the ‘political’ dimension of facilitation 175Questions for discussion 17611 The role of outsiders and different intervention approaches 17711.1 The relationship between instrumental/persuasive and interactive models: alternation and sequencing 17711.2 The role and expertise of ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’ 17911.2.1 Different areas of knowledge and competence needed in intervention 17911.2.2 From ‘experts’ and ‘laymen’ to ‘outsiders’ and ‘insiders’ 18111.2.3 The role and contribution of external facilitators and scientists 181Questions for discussion 185Part 4 Media, Methods and Process Management 18712 The potential of basic communication forms and media 18912.1 Conventional mass media 19012.1.1 The way mass media work 19112.1.2 Functional qualities in relation to communicative intervention 19212.1.3 Basic guidelines for presenting messages through written mass media 19412.2 Interpersonal communication 19612.2.1 Functional qualities in relation to communicative intervention 19612.2.2 Basic modes of administrating group and bilateral meetings 19812.2.3 Skills needed for facilitating interpersonal communication 20012.3 Hybrid media: the internet 20212.3.1 Modalities of the internet 20312.3.2 Functional qualities of hybrid media 20412.3.3 Internet applications for communicative intervention 20512.4 Media access and audience selectivity 20712.5 Media mixes 208Questions for discussion 20813 Communication for innovation methods 20913.1 Clarifying the terminology used 20913.2 Reasons to focus on methods, functions and process management 21113.3 Specific methods and issues related to farm management communication 21213.3.1 Advisory communication 21313.3.2 Supporting horizontal knowledge exchange 21713.4 Methods related to raising awareness and consciousness of pre-defined issues 22013.4.1 Mass media campaigns 22013.4.2 Entertainment–education 22113.4.3 Visualising what is difficult to see 22213.4.4 Result demonstrations/demonstration experiments 22213.5 Methods related to the exploration of views and issues 22413.5.1 Analysis of everyday talk 22413.5.2 In-depth interviewing 22513.5.3 Metaplan cards 22613.5.4 Open space technology 22613.5.5 Visual diagramming and mapping 22713.5.6 Ranking and scoring techniques 23013.5.7 Socio-technical problem tree analysis 23113.5.8 Joint research and on-farm experimentation 23313.5.9 Public debates 23713.5.10 Future explorations 23813.5.11 A caveat: be aware of ritualistic use of exploratory methods 24113.6 Methods related to information provision 24213.6.1 Written and computer-based search and access facilities 24313.6.2 Information-needs assessment 24313.7 Methods related to training 24513.7.1 Method demonstrations 24513.7.2 Experiential practicals 245Questions for discussion 24614 The management of interactive innovation processes 24714.1 Some limitations of conventional thinking on participation 24814.1.1 Defining ‘participation’ 24914.1.2 Types and levels of participation 25014.1.3 Is ‘maximum participation’ possible and desirable? 25114.1.4 Reservations at the theoretical level: strategic versus communicative action 25614.2 Guidelines for the facilitation of interactive processes 25914.2.1 Task 1: Preparing the process 25914.2.2 Task 2: Reaching and maintaining process agreements 26314.2.3 Task 3: Joint exploration and situation analysis 26514.2.4 Task 4: Joint fact-finding and uncertainty reduction 27014.2.5 Task 5: Forging agreement 27114.2.6 Task 6: Communication of representatives with constituencies 27214.2.7 Task 7: Co-ordinated action 273Questions for discussion 27415 The planning of individual activities 27515.1 The purpose of an activity 27615.1.1 Goal hierarchies 27615.1.2 Communicative and other means or objectives 27715.2 Stakeholders, audiences, and targeting 27915.2.1 Characterising relevant diversity 28015.2.2 Different types of target audiences 28515.3 Content 28515.4 Media and methods 28715.5 Organisation and logistics 28815.6 Pre-testing elements of activities 289Questions for discussion 290Part 5 Organisational and Interorganisational Issues 29116 Organisational management, learning and research 29316.1 Co-ordination in organisations: the significance of ‘structure’ and ‘culture’ 29316.2 Images of organisation and the nature of management 29516.2.1 Organisations as machines/hard systems thinking 29516.2.2 Organisations as organisms/functionalist systems thinking 29616.2.3 Organisations as flux and transformation/soft systems thinking 29716.2.4 Organisations as political systems/critical systems thinking 29816.2.5 Organisations as brains or psychic prisons/cognitive or autopoietic systems thinking 29916.2.6 Conclusion: the implications of different images 30116.3 The importance of (re)formulating missions 30116.3.1 Extension in crisis: the need for change and continuity 30216.3.2 Organisational implications of a novel mission 30316.4 The challenge of learning organisations: embracing tension 30616.4.1 Looking for and creating tension: some practical hints 30816.4.2 Creating opportunities and conducive conditions: practical hints 31116.5 Organisational research, monitoring and evaluation 31416.5.1 Why deviate from the conventional M&E terminology? 31616.5.2 Key questions to ask in decision-oriented research 318Questions for discussion 32017 Agricultural knowledge and information systems 32117.1 Knowledge and information systems thinking 32117.2 Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) 32417.3 Networking in knowledge systems 326Questions for discussion 32818 Privatisation and the emergence of ‘knowledge markets’ 32918.1 Economic theory and the commoditisation of knowledge 32918.2 Public and private forms of financing communicative intervention 33218.3 Privatisation in research 33618.4 Initial observations regarding emerging knowledge markets 33718.5 Reflections on the commoditisation of knowledge 345Questions for discussion 34919 Co-operation across scientific disciplines and epistemic communities 35019.1 Methodological differences between the social and the natural sciences 35019.2 What does cross-disciplinary co-operation entail? 35419.3 Obstacles for cross-disciplinary co-operation 356Questions for discussion 361Part 6 Epilogue 36320 Approaches and issues for further conceptual research 36520.1 Overall focus: communication and processes of socio-technical design 36520.2 The role of theory in formulating specific areas and questions for research 36620.3 A note on research design and methodology: towards ‘comparative process ethnography’ 37320.4 Process ethnography as network analysis 37520.4.1 Classical network analysis: describing interaction patterns among human actors 37620.4.2 Analysing networks of interrelated events 37720.4.3 Looking at the building of networks of human and non-human ‘agents’ 37820.4.4 Following knowledge constructs and perceptions in networks 38020.4.5 Conclusion 381Questions for discussion 381References 382Index 405

“This book expands and updates the knowledge base about agricultural extension and communication for innovation. Content is logical, theoretically supported, and highly cross-referenced.  It includes theoretical and practical implications that can help communication practitioners, researchers, and policy makers improve their effectiveness.”  (International Journal of Agricultural Management, 1 April 2014)