Cognition

Thomas A. Farmer, Ph.D., is currently a Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at California State University, Fullerton. He has 20+ years of research experience in the cognitive sciences, and nearly as many years of experience teaching topics related to cognition and experimental psychology. Dr. Farmer has been responsible for the updating and revision of Cognition since Dr. Margaret Matlin’s retirement, and thus shares authorship of this 11th edition of the book.

• Preface xv1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1Chapter Introduction 1Cognitive Psychology: Overview 1Origins of Cognitive Psychology 4Wilhelm Wundt 4Early Memory Researchers 5William James 5Behaviorism 5Edward Tolman 6The Gestalt Approach 7Cognitive Revolution 7Cognitive Psychology More Recently 8Perspectives on Cognitive Psychology 9The Computer Metaphor of the Mind and Information Processing 9The Connectionist Approach 11Cognitive Neuroscience 12Textbook Overview 12Chapter Preview 13Themes in the Book 14Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active rather than passive 14Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate 14Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 14Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 14Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing 15How to Use Your Book Effectively 15Chapter Outline 15Chapter Introductions 15Demonstrations 15“Focus on Methodology” Boxes 16Application 16Section Summaries 16End of Chapter Review Questions 16Keywords 16Keywords List and Glossary 16Recommended Readings 17Section Summary Points 17Chapter Review Questions 17Keywords 18Recommended Readings 182 Visual and Auditory Recognition 19Chapter Introduction 19Overview of Visual Object Recognition 20The Visual System 20Organization in Visual Perception 22Theories of Visual Object Recognition 23Feature-Analysis Theory 23The Recognition-by-Components Theory 25Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 28Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing 28Top-Down Processing and Reading 29“Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition 30Change Blindness 30Inattentional Blindness 32Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 33Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 33Applied Research on Face Recognition 34Speech Perception 36Characteristics of Speech Perception 37Word Boundaries 37Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 37Context and Speech Perception 38Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 38Theories of Speech Perception 39The Special Mechanism Approach 39The General Mechanism Approaches 40Section Summary Points 40Chapter Review Questions 41Keywords 42Recommended Readings 423 Attention and Consciousness 43Chapter Introduction 43Overview of Attention 44Divided Attention 44Selective Attention 45Dichotic Listening 45The Stroop Effect 46Visual Search 48Neuroscience of Attention 50The Orienting Attention Network 50The Executive Attention Network 52Theories of Attention 52Early Theories of Attention 52Feature-Integration Theory 53Consciousness 55Thought Suppression 56Blindsight 57Mindfulness Meditation 57Section Summary Points 58Chapter Review Questions 59Keywords 59Recommended Readings 604 Working Memory 61Chapter Introduction 61Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 62Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits 62The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique 63The Serial-Position Effect 63Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 65Atkinson–Shiffrin Model of Information Processing 66The Turn to Working Memory 67Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 69Phonological Loop 69Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 70Visuospatial Sketchpad 71Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 72Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 72Central Executive 73Characteristics of the Central Executive 73The Central Executive and Daydreaming 73Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 74Recent Views of the Central Executive 74Episodic Buffer 75Applications of Working Memory 76Working Memory and Academic Performance 76Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 77Working Memory and Major Depression 77Working Memory and ADHD 78Working Memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 79Summary 79Section Summary Points 79Chapter Review Questions 80Keywords 81Recommended Readings 815 Long-Term Memory 82Chapter Introduction 82Overview of Long-Term Memory 83Encoding in Long-Term Memory 83Levels of Processing 84Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 84Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 85Encoding-Specificity Principle 86Research on Encoding Specificity 86Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 87Emotions Mood and Memory 88Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 90Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 90Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 92Individuals with Amnesia 92Expertise 93The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 94How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 94Autobiographical Memory 95Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 95Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 96Flashbulb Memories 97Eyewitness Testimony 98Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 98The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 99Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 100The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy 101The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 101The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 101The Potential for Memory Errors 102Arguments for False Memory 102Arguments for Recovered Memory 103Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct 103Section Summary Points 104Chapter Review Questions 105Keywords 105Recommended Readings 1056 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 106Chapter Introduction 106Absentmindedness and Strategies for Avoiding It 106Memory Strategies Involving Practice and Mnemonics 108Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 108Distributed-Practice Effect 109Testing Effect 109Test Anxiety 110Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization 111Imagery 111Organization 112Improving Prospective Memory 114Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 114Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 115Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 115Metamemory 116Accuracy of Metamemory 117Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy forIndividual Items 117Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 118Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 118Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies 119Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 119Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 119Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 119Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 120Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 120Feeling of Knowing 121Metacomprehension 121Metacomprehension Accuracy 122Improving Metacomprehension 123Section Summary Points 124Chapter Review Questions 124Keywords 125Recommended Readings 125Answer to Demonstration 6.4 1257 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 126Chapter Introduction 126Classical Research on Visual Imagery 127Overview of Mental Imagery 127Mental Rotation 128Subsequent Behavioral Research on Mental Rotation 130The Imagery Debate 130Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Visual Mental Imagery Tasks 131Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 132Summary 134Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 134Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 134Visual Imagery and Interference 135Individual Differences in Mental Imagery 136Verbalizers versus Visualizers 136Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 136Auditory Imagery 139Auditory Imagery and Pitch 139Auditory Imagery and Timbre 140Cognitive Maps 140Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 142Cognitive Maps and Shape 144Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 144The Rotation Heuristic 144The Alignment Heuristic 145Creating a Cognitive Map 146The Spatial Framework Model 146The Situated Cognition Approach 147Section Summary Points 148Chapter Review Questions 149Keywords 149Recommended Readings 1498 General Knowledge 150Chapter Introduction 150Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 150Background Information 151Prototype Approach 152Characteristics of Prototypes 154Levels of Categorization 155Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 156Exemplar Approach 156Comparing the Prototype and Exemplar Approaches 158Network Models 158The Collins and Loftus Network Model 159Anderson’s ACT-R Approach 160The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 161Schemas and Scripts 165Background on Schemas and Scripts 166Identifying the Script in Advance 166Memory Selection 167Boundary Extension 168Memory Abstraction 169The Constructive Approach 169The Pragmatic Approach 171The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 172Memory Integration 172The Classic Research on Memory Integration 172Section Summary Points 173Chapter Review Questions 173Keywords 174Recommended Readings 174Answer to Demonstration 8.8 1749 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 175Chapter Introduction 175Overview of Psycholinguistics 176Background on Language 176Basic Facts About Human Language 177A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 177Chomsky’s Approach 178Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory 178Psycholinguistic Theories That Emphasize Meaning 179Sentence Comprehension 180Negation 180Syntactic Complexity 180Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 182Lexical Ambiguity 182Syntactic Ambiguity 182Good-Enough Processing 184Brain and Language 185General Considerations 185Aphasia 185Revisiting Broca’s Area 186Hemispheric Specialization 188The Mirror System 189Reading 190Comparing Written and Spoken Language 190Eye Movements During Reading 191Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 192The Direct-Access Route 193The Indirect-Access Route 193Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 194Section Summary Points 196Chapter Review Questions 197Keywords 197Recommended Readings 197Answer to Demonstration 9.1 19810 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 199Chapter Introduction 199Language Production: Speaking 200Producing a Word 200Producing a Sentence 202Producing Discourse 202The Role of Gesture During Communication 203Language Production: Writing 205The Role of Working Memory in Writing 206Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 207Sentence Generation During Writing 207The Revision Phase of Writing 208Bilingualism and Second Language Learning 208Background on Bilingualism 208Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 210Second Language Learning 212Vocabulary 212Phonology 213Grammar 213Simultaneous Interpreters 214Section Summary Points 216Chapter Review Questions 216Keywords 217Recommended Readings 21711 Problem Solving and Creativity 218Chapter Introduction 218Understanding the Problem 219Methods of Representing the Problem 220Symbols 220Matrices 221Diagrams 221Visual Images 222Perspectives on Problem Solving 222Situated Cognition 223Embodied Cognition 223Problem-Solving Strategies 224The Analogy Approach 224The Means-Ends Heuristic 225The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 226Factors That Influence Problem Solving 227Expertise 227Mental Set 228Functional Fixedness 229Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 230Problem Type: Insight Versus Noninsight Problems 231Metacognition During Problem Solving 232Advice About Problem Solving 232Creativity 233The Nature of Creativity 233Motivation and Creativity 234Section Summary Points 236Chapter Review Questions 236Keywords 237Recommended Readings 237Answer to Demonstration 11.3 237Answer to Demonstration 11.5 237Answer to Demonstration 11.6B 238Answer to Demonstration 11.7A 238Answer to Demonstration 11.7B 23812 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 239Chapter Introduction 239Deductive Reasoning 240Overview of Conditional Reasoning 240Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning 242Biases and Deductive Reasoning 243Belief-Bias Effect 243Confirmation Bias 244Heuristics and Decision Making 245Representativeness Heuristic 246Sample Size and Representativeness 247Base Rate and Representativeness 247The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 248Availability Heuristic 250Recency and Familiarity Effects 250The Recognition Heuristic 251Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 251Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 252Estimating Confidence Intervals 253Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 253Applications of Decision-Making Research 254Framing Effect 254The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 255Overconfidence About Decisions 256General Studies on Overconfidence 256Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time 257Reasons for Overconfidence 257Hindsight Bias 258Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 258Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 259Section Summary Points 260Chapter Review Questions 261Keywords 261Recommended Readings 261Answer to Demonstration 12.1 262Answer to Demonstration 12.6 26213 Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan 263Chapter Introduction 263The Lifespan Development of Memory 263Memory in Infants 264Memory in Children 266Children’s Working Memory 267Children’s Long-Term Memory 267Children’s Memory Strategies 269Children’s Eyewitness Testimony 271Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 272Memory in Older Adults 273Working Memory in Older Adults 273Long-Term Memory in Older Adults 274Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 275The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 276Metamemory in Children 276Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works 276Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 277Children’s Judgments About Their Memory Performance 277Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance 278Metamemory in Older Adults 279Beliefs About Memory 279Memory Monitoring 279Awareness of Memory Problems 280The Development of Language 280Language in Infants 280Speech Perception During Infancy 281Language Comprehension During Infancy 281Language Production During Infancy 282Adults’ Language to Infants 283Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 283Language in Children 284Words 284Morphology 285Syntax 286Section Summary Points 286Chapter Review Questions 287Keywords 288Recommended Readings 288Glossary G-1References R-1Index I-1