Clinical Phonetics

Lawrence D. Shriberg, PhD, (1939–2024) was Professor Emeritus of Communicative Sciences and Disorders, University of Wisconsin-Madison. He was Principal Investigator of the Phonology Project, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison and conducted research centered on genetic and other bases of pediatric speech sound disorders of known and unknown origin. Goals of the research, using a framework termed the Speech Disorders Classification System, were to develop behavioral markers that can identify biomarkers and explicate the causal pathways of pediatric speech sound dis- orders. Among the many awards he received were Honors of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Alfred K. Kawana Council of Editors Award, and the Distinguished Alumni Award from the University of Kansas Medical Center.Raymond D. Kent, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Communicative Sciences and Disorders at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research interests include speech development, motor speech disorders, and instrumental methods of speech assessment. He has authored or edited 19 books, including: The Acoustic Analysis of Speech (with Charles Read), Reference Manual for Communicative Sciences and Disorders: Handbook of Voice Quality Measurement (with Martin J. Ball), The MIT Encyclopedia of Communication Disorders, and Handbook on Children’s Speech. He served as editor of the Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, associate founding editor of Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, and associate editor of Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica.Tara McAllister, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Communicative Sciences and Disorders at New York University. She has published over 70 peer- reviewed papers spanning the disciplines of linguistics and speech-language pathology. Her research aims to understand how speech skills are acquired in both typical and clinical populations, and why developmental speech patterns resolve in some individuals but persist in others. She also directs the BITS (Biofeedback Intervention Technology for Speech) Lab at NYU, which develops and tests tools to provide visual biofeedback for persistent speech sound errors in children.Jonathan L. Preston, PhD, is a Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders at Syracuse University and is a Fellow of the American Speech- Language-Hearing Association. He has coauthored numerous publications focusing on phonetic, phonological, and neurobiological characteristics of children with speech sound disorders. In his current position, he teaches coursework on phonetics and speech sound disorders, and he conducts clinical research on assessment and treatment of speech sound disorders, including residual speech errors and childhood apraxia of speech.Marisha Speights, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders at North- western University. A speech-language pathologist and pediatric speech scientist, her research focuses on articulatory and acoustic phonetics, child speech production, and early detection of speech disorders. She directs the Pediatric Speech Technologies and Acoustics Research Lab, which uses large-scale speech data, acoustic analysis, and artificial intelligence (AI) to develop scalable tools for automated screening and assessment. Her work bridges clinical practice and technology to improve access to speech and language services for young children. She has taught phonetics and pediatric speech sound disorders for over a decade, and her publications in journals such as PLOS Digital Health, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, and Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics feature tools for phonetic transcription and automated analysis of child speech.

• ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgmentsAbout the AuthorsChapter 1. Introduction to Phonetics and Phonetic VariationPhonetics and Phonetic Variation The Study of Language VariationSources of Phonetic VariationIs There a “Standard” Variety?Considerations of Age and GenderLanguage Variation and Clinical PracticeThe Importance of Sound FilesConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 2. Phonetics and LanguageThe PhonemeThe International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)Phonetics and PhonologyThe SyllableStressed and Unstressed SyllablesPositional and Contextual Terminology for Phonetic DescriptionsThe MorphemePhonological AwarenessMarkednessQuantitative LinguisticsConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 3. The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionThe Respiratory SystemThe Laryngeal SystemThe Supralaryngeal SystemThe JawThe TongueThe LipsThe TeethVariation in Vocal Tract AnatomySpeech Motor ControlTechnologies for the Study of PhoneticsX-ray ImagingMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)Electromagnetic Articulography (EMA)Ultrasound ImagingElectropalatography (EPG)Fiber-optic EndoscopyAerodynamic AnalysisAcoustic AnalysisConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 4. Vowels: Monophthongs and DiphthongsIntroductionVowel ArticulationTongue Height (the High–Low Dimension of Tongue Position)Tongue Advancement (the Front-Back Dimension of Tongue Position)Tense versus Lax VowelsExercise: Is the Vowel Tense or Lax?Lip Configuration (Rounding)Exercise: Is the Vowel Rounded or Unrounded?Vowel Description: Tongue Height, Tongue Advancement, Tenseness, and Lip RoundingLateral Tongue BracingNasalizationThe Front VowelsVowel /i/ (He) Articulatory Description: High, Front, Tense, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɪ/ (Hid)Articulatory Description: High-Mid, Front, Lax, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /e/ (Say)Articulatory Description: Mid, Front, Tense, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɛ/, Sometimes Called “Epsilon” (Head)Articulatory Description: Low-Mid, Front, Lax, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /æ/, Sometimes Called “Ash” (Had)Articulatory Description: Low, Front, Lax, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsThe Back VowelsVowel /u/ (Who)Articulatory Description: High, Back, Tense, and Rounded VowelSpecial ConsiderationsTranscription WordsVowel /ʊ/, Sometimes Called “Upsilon” (Hook)Articulatory Description: High-Mid, Back, Lax, and Rounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /o/ (Boat)Articulatory Description: Mid, Back, Tense, and Rounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɔ/, Sometimes Called “Open o” or “Backwards c” (Hall)Articulatory Description: Low-Mid, Back, Tense, and Rounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɑ/, Sometimes Called “Script a” (Hot)Articulatory Description: Low, Back, Tense, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsThe Central Vowels and Rhotic VowelsVowel /ʌ/, Sometimes Called “Turned V,” “Wedge,” or “Caret” (Hub)Articulatory Description: Low-Mid, Back-Central, Lax, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ə/, Sometimes Called “Schwa” (first syllable in Above)Articulatory Description: Mid-Central, Lax, and Unrounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɝ/), Sometimes Called “Stressed Schwar” (Her)Articulatory Description: Mid-Central, Tense, and Rounded VowelTranscription WordsVowel /ɚ/, Sometimes Called “Schwar” (Mother)Articulatory Description: Mid-Central, Lax, and Rounded VowelTranscription WordsTranscription Words with Both Stressed /ɝ/ and Unstressed /ɚ/Other Vowels with R-ColoringR-Colored Vowel /ɑɹ/ (Far)Articulatory Summary for /ɑɹ/Transcription WordsR-Colored Vowel /ɔɹ/ (Four)Articulatory Summary for /ɔɹ/Transcription WordsR-Colored Vowel /ɪɹ/ (Fear)Articulatory Summary for /ɪɹ/Transcription WordsR-colored Vowel /ɛɹ/ (Fair)Articulatory Summary for /ɛɹ/Transcription WordsCardinal VowelsThree-Dimensional Grid of Vowel Production in American EnglishDiphthongsPhonemic and Nonphonemic DiphthongsPhonemic DiphthongsDiphthong /a͡ɪ/ (Bye; Figure 4-23)Articulatory Summary for /a͡ɪ/Transcription WordsDiphthong /ɔ͡ɪ/ (Boy; Figure 4-23)Articulatory Summary for /ɔ͡ɪ/Transcription WordsDiphthong /a͡ʊ/ (Bough; Figure 4-23)Articulatory Summary for /a͡ʊ/Transcription WordsNonphonemic DiphthongsExercise: Identifying DiphthongsAllographs of the Vowel Phonemes of EnglishVowels Around the WorldThe Many Roles of VowelsThe Acoustic Properties of VowelsThe Vocal Tract as a ResonatorThe Spectrum and SpectrogramVowel Formant PatternsApplications of Vowel AcousticsEffects of Language and Dialect on Vowel AcousticsConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 5. ConsonantsManner of ArticulationStopsStops—Articulatory SummaryFricativesFricatives—Articulatory SummaryAffricates/Affricates—Articulatory SummaryNasalsNasals—Articulatory SummaryLiquidsLiquids—Articulatory SummaryGlidesGlides—Articulatory SummaryPlace of ArticulationThe Voicing FeatureConsonants by Manner, Place, and VoicingTranscribing Stop ConsonantsBilabial Stops: /b/ and /p/Alveolar Stops: /t/ and /d/Alveolar Flap: [ɾ]Velar stops: /k/ and /ɡ/Glottal stop: [ʔ]Transcribing Fricative and Affricative ConsonantsLabiodental Fricatives: /f/ and /v/Interdental (or Dental) Fricatives: /θ/ and /ð/Alveolar Fricatives: /s/ and /z/Palatal Fricatives: /ʃ/ and /ʒ/Glottal Fricative: /h/Palatal Affricates: /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ Transcribing Nasal ConsonantsBilabial Nasal: /m/Alveolar Nasal: /n/Velar Nasal: /ŋ/Transcribing Liquid ConsonantsAlveolar Lateral Liquid: /l/Palatal Rhotic Liquid: /ɹ/Transcribing GlidesLabiovelar Glide: /w/Palatal Glide: /j/Frequency of Occurrence of Place of Consonant ArticulationSummary Classification of Consonants in American EnglishConsonant AcousticsAcoustic Features of Consonant ClassesStopsFricativesAffricatesNasalsLiquidsGlidesEffects of Speaker Age and Sex on Consonant AcousticsSounds in SequenceConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 6. Suprasegmentals and ProsodyThe Units of ProsodySyllablesPhonemes within SyllablesThe Prosodic FootThe Intonational PhraseIntonationStressLexical StressLexical Stress Marking in the IPAReductionStress Beyond the Word LevelContrastive StressNew versus Given InformationRhythm and TimingRhythmTimingJuncturePauseBoundary or Edge EffectsSymbols to Mark Timing, Juncture, and IntonationLengthened [siː]Shortened [wĭ]Close Juncture [la͡ɪtha͡ʊs] Open Juncture [ənaɪs+mæn] versus [ən+aɪsmæn] Internal Open Juncture [hɛlpǀsu]Falling Terminal Juncture [tudeɪꜜ]Rising Terminal Juncture [tudeɪꜛ]Checked or Held Juncture [tudeɪ→]Selected Extensions to the International Phonetic AlphabetParalinguisticsRegistersInfant-Directed SpeechClear SpeechOther Prosodic VariationsDialectal Variation of ProsodyProsody in Typical and Atypical Development of Speech and LanguageClinical Assessment of ProsodyCrystal’s Prosody Profile (PROP)Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, and Rasmussen’s Prosody-Voice Screening Profile (PVSP)Profiling Elements of Prosodic Systems—Child Version (PEPS-C)An Integrated View of SuprasegmentalsConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 7. Narrow TranscriptionPhonemes and AllophonesUses of Narrow TranscriptionCoarticulationDiacritics Used to Represent CoarticulationNasal SymbolsNasalized [mæ̃n]    Lip SymbolsLabialized Consonant [kʷwin]Tongue SymbolsDentalized [wɪd̪θ]Palatalized [sʲtɹit]Velarized [fiɫ]Fronted or Advanced [k̟ɪt]Retracted [s̠tɹit]Voice-Related SymbolsPartially Voiced [æbs̬ɪnt]Partially Devoiced [dɔɡ̥]Glottalized (or Creaky Voice) [bɑ̰ks]Breathy (or Murmured) [pli̤z]Stop Release SymbolsAspirated [tʰɑp]Unaspirated [st=ɑp]Unreleased [lip̚]Syllabic SymbolConclusionChapter Summary ExercisesChapter 8. Practicing Broad and Narrow Transcription of Children’s SpeechIntroductionDiacritics for Clinical or Developmental VariationPreparing to Practice Clinical TranscriptionPart A: Transcription of Stop Sound ChangesTraining Modules: StopsStops Module 1: Stop SubstitutionsStops Module 2: Stop DeletionsStops Module 3: Glottal Stop SubstitutionsStops Module 4: Voicing of Voiceless StopsStops Module 5: Devoicing of Voiced StopsStops Module 6: Frictionalized StopsStops Module 7: Summary QuizPart B: Transcription of Fricative and Affricate Sound ChangesDescription of FricativesDistribution and Frequency of Occurrence of Fricatives and AffricatesTraining Modules: Fricatives and AffricatesOverviewStoppingPlace SubstitutionsDeletionsVoicing ChangesDistortionsSummaryFricatives and Affricates Module 1: Nonsibilant Fricative Substitutions Fricatives and Affricates Module 2: Sibilant Fricative and Affricate SubstitutionsFricatives and Affricates Module 3: Fricative DeletionsFricatives and Affricates Module 4: Fricative and Affricate Voicing ChangesFricatives and Affricates Module 5: Dentalized SibilantsFricatives and Affricates Module 6: Lateralized SibilantsFricatives and Affricates Module 7: Palatalized SibilantsWhistled (or Hissed)Fricatives and Affricates Module 8: Sibilants QuizFricatives and Affricates Module 9: Summary QuizPart C: Transcription of Glide and Liquid ChangesDescription of Glides and LiquidsDistribution and Frequency Training Modules: Glides and LiquidsGlides and Liquids Module 1: Glide ChangesGlides and Liquids Module 2: /l/ SubstitutionsGlides and Liquids Module 3: Velarized /l/Trilled rhotic /r/Glides and Liquids Module 4: Derhotacized /ɹ/, /ɝ/, /ɚ/Derhotacized [ɹ̮ɛd]Glides and Liquids Module 5: Velarized /ɹ/Glides and Liquids Module 6: /ɹ/ QuizGlides and Liquids Module 7: Summary QuizPart D: Transcription of Nasal Sound ChangesTraining Modules: NasalsNasals Module 1: Nasal DeletionsNasals Module 2: Summary QuizPart E: Transcription of Vowel Sound ChangesTraining Modules: VowelsVowels Module 1: Vowel SubstitutionsVowels Module 2: Vowel ModificationsRounded and Unrounded Production [swi̹t]; [du̜d]Fronted/Advanced and Backed/Retracted Production [hɑ̟t]; [sæ̠d]Raised and Lowered Production[sɛ̝t]; [bɛ̞d]Vowels Module 3: Central VowelsVowels Module 4: Vowel Substitutions, Modifications, and Central VowelsVowels Module 5: Vowel AdditionsVowels Module 6: Vowel Lengthening [biːd]Vowels Module 7: Vowel NasalizationVowels Module 8: Summary QuizOther Symbols used in Clinical TranscriptionSynchronic TieUnintelligible SyllableQuestionable SegmentGrand QuizChapter 9. Preparing to Collect and Transcribe Clinical Speech SamplesEliciting and Recording Speech SamplesRecording EquipmentMicrophonesDigital Recording OptionsThe Recording EnvironmentEliciting the SampleFactors that Influence Scoring and TranscriptionClient FactorsAge and BehaviorIndividual Speaking CharacteristicsIntelligibilityPhonetic VariationTask FactorsLinguistic ContextResponse RequirementsJudgment BiasApproaches to Clinical Transcription and ScoringTranscription and Scoring SystemsWhat Level of Detail Should Be Represented?Broad versus Narrow TranscriptionHow Much of the Data Should Be Transcribed Live versus Transcribed Later from Audio or Video Recordings?The Process of Scoring or TranscriptionShould I Use Video Recording?Should I Use Headphones?Should I Preview the Recording?What if I’m Not Sure What I’m Hearing?How Many Times Should I Listen?What Are Some Strategies for Difficult Words?Some Final SuggestionsConclusionChapter 10. Phonetics in the Clinical SettingSingle-Word Tests of Articulation and PhonologyTranscribing NonwordsTwo-Way Scoring and Deep TestingTwo-Way Scoring in Larger Speech SamplesRating /s/ in Continuous SpeechRating Rhotics in Continuous SpeechTranscription in Larger Speech SamplesTranscribing Imitated PhrasesTranscribing Read SentencesTranscribing All Sounds in Continuous Speech Transcribing Children with Motor Speech DisordersMotor Speech Disorders: Imitated Single WordsMotor Speech Disorders: Imitated Words in PhrasesMotor Speech Disorders: Imitated SentencesMotor Speech Disorders: Conversational SpeechConclusionChapter 11. Transcribing Phonetic VariationIntroductionPart A: Transcribing Regional Variation in American EnglishSouthern American EnglishLocationMajor Features Western American EnglishLocationMajor Features Midland American EnglishLocationMajor FeaturesNorthern American English LocationMajor FeaturesNortheastern Varieties of American EnglishLocationMajor FeaturesPractice Discriminating Regional Variation in VowelsRegional Variation in ConsonantsSocioprosodicsInternational EnglishesPart B: African American EnglishOrigins of AAEClinical and Educational ConsiderationsMajor Features of AAEPart C: Transcribing Multilingual SpeakersWorking with Speakers from Unfamiliar Language BackgroundsTransfer from Spanish to EnglishFeatures of Spanish-influenced EnglishConclusionFurther ReadingOnline ResourcesTranscription TrainingsAppendicesAppendix A-1. The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2020)Appendix A-2. extIPA Symbols for Disordered SpeechAppendix B-1. Proportional Occurrence of Vowels in American English for Adults and ChildrenAppendix B-2. Proportional Occurrence of Consonant Phonemes in the Speech of Adults and ChildrenGlossaryAnswers to Chapter Summary ExercisesReferencesIndex