Chemistry

Dr. James Spencer is a professor of chemistry at Franklin and Marshall College. He has received a number of awards and commendations including the Lindback Award for Distinguished Teaching, Bradley R. Dewey Award for Outstanding Scholarship, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association National Award for Teaching. Dr. Spencer was a founding member of the Council on Undergraduate Research, a national organization dedicated to promoting research in all disciplines by undergraduates. He was appointed chair of the ACS Task Force on the General Chemistry Curriculum, served as a member and chair of the Advanced Placement Chemistry Committee and now chairs the Advanced Placement Redesign Panel for Chemistry.

• Chapter 1 Elements and Compounds 11.1 Chemistry: A Definition, 21.2 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures, 31.3 Atomic Symbols, 41.4 Chemical Formulas, 51.5 Evidence for the Existence of Atoms, 61.6 The Role of Measurement in Chemistry, 71.7 The Structure of Atoms, 91.8 Atomic Number and Mass Number, 111.9 Isotopes, 121.10 The Difference Between Atoms and Ions, 141.11 Polyatomic Ions, 161.12 The Periodic Table, 161.13 The Macroscopic, Atomic and Symbolic Worlds of Chemistry, 181.14 The Mass of an Atom, 191.15 Chemical Reactions and the Law of Conservation of Atoms, 211.16 Chemical Equations as a Representation of Chemical Reactions, 211.17 Balancing Chemical Equations, 22Chapter 2 The Mole: The Link between the Macroscopic and the Atomic Worlds of Chemistry 312.1 The Mole as the Bridge Between the Macroscopic and Atomic Scales, 322.2 The Mole as a Collection of Atoms, 332.3 Converting Grams into Moles and Number of Atoms, 352.4 The Mole as a Collection of Molecules, 372.5 Percent by Mass, 402.6 Determining the Formula of a Compound, 412.7 Two Views of Chemical Equations: Molecules Versus Moles, 452.8 Mole Ratios and Chemical Equations, 462.9 Stoichiometry, 482.10 The Stoichiometry of the Breathalyzer, 492.11 The Nuts and Bolts of Limiting Reagents, 502.12 Density, 532.13 Solute, Solvent, and Solution, 542.14 Concentration, 552.15 Molarity as a Way to Count Particles in a Solution, 562.16 Dilution Calculations, 582.17 Solution Stoichiometry, 59Problems, 63Chapter 3 The Structure of the Atom 713.1 Rutherford’s Model of the Atom, 723.2 Particles and Waves, 733.3 Light and Other Forms of Electromagnetic Radiation, 743.4 Atomic Spectra, 763.5 The Wave-Packet Model of Electromagnetic Radiation, 773.6 The Bohr Model of the Atom, 793.7 The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom, 803.8 Electromagnetic Radiation and Color, 823.9 The First Ionization Energy, 833.10 The Shell Model, 853.11 The Shell Model and the Periodic Table, 873.12 Photoelectron Spectroscopy and the Structure of Atoms, 883.13 Electron Configurations from Photoelectron Spectroscopy, 893.14 Allowed Combinations of Quantum Numbers, 953.15 Shells and Subshells of Orbitals, 963.16 Orbitals and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, 983.17 Predicting Electron Configurations, 1003.18 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table, 1013.19 Electron Configurations and Hund’s Rules, 1023.20 The Sizes of Atoms: Metallic Radii, 1043.21 The Sizes of Atoms: Covalent Radii, 1043.22 The Relative Sizes of Atoms and Their Ions, 1053.23 Patterns in Ionic Radii, 1073.24 Second, Third, Fourth, and Higher Ionization Energies, 1083.25 Average Valence Electron Energy (AVEE), 1103.26 AVEE and Metallicity, 111Problems, 113Chapter 4 The Covalent Bond 1234.1 Valence Electrons, 1244.2 The Covalent Bond, 1254.3 How Does the Sharing of Electrons Bond Atoms?, 1264.4 Using Lewis Structures to Understand the Formation of Bonds, 1274.5 Drawing Skeleton Structures, 1284.6 A Step-by-Step Approach to Writing Lewis Structures, 1294.7 Molecules That Don’t Seem to Satisfy the Octet Rule, 1314.8 Bond Lengths, 1344.9 Resonance Hybrids, 1364.10 Electronegativity, 1394.11 Partial Charge, 1414.12 Formal Charge, 1424.13 The Shapes of Molecules, 1454.14 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules (The Electron Domain Model), 1484.15 The Role of Nonbonding Electrons in the ED Model, 1514.16 Bond Angles, 1544.17 The Difference Between Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules, 156Problems, 158Special Topics4A.1 Valence Bond Theory, 1654A.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals, 1664A.3 Molecules with Double and Triple Bonds, 1694A.4 Molecular Orbital Theory, 170Problems, 176Chapter 5 Ionic and Metallic Bonds 1775.1 Metals, Nonmetals, and Semimetals, 1785.2 The Active Metals, 1785.3 Main-Group Metals and Their Ions, 1805.4 Main-Group Nonmetals and Their Ions, 1815.5 Transition Metals and Their Ions, 1845.6 Chemistry and Color, 1845.7 Predicting the Formulas of Ionic Compounds, 1855.8 Predicting the Products of Reactions That Produce Ionic Compounds, 1865.9 Oxides, Peroxides, and Superoxides, 1885.10 The Ionic Bond, 1895.11 Structures of Ionic Compounds, 1905.12 Metallic Bonds, 1915.13 The Relationship among Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonds, 1925.14 Bond-Type Triangles, 1975.15 Properties of Metallic, Covalent, and Ionic Compounds, 2015.16 Oxidation Numbers, 2015.17 Calculating Oxidation Numbers, 2045.18 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 2075.19 Nomenclature, 209Problems, 213Chapter 6 Gases 2216.1 Temperature, 2226.2 Temperature as a Property of Matter, 2236.3 The States of Matter, 2246.4 Elements or Compounds That Are Gases at Room Temperature, 2256.5 The Properties of Gases, 2266.6 Pressure versus Force, 2276.7 Atmospheric Pressure, 2296.8 Boyle’s Law, 2316.9 Amontons’ Law, 2326.10 Charles’ Law, 2336.11 Gay-Lussac’s Law, 2346.12 Avogadro’s Hypothesis, 2346.13 The Ideal Gas Equation, 2366.14 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, 2376.15 Ideal Gas Calculations: Part I, 2406.16 Ideal Gas Calculations: Part II, 2446.17 The Kinetic Molecular Theory, 2466.18 How the Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws, 2476.19 Graham’s Laws of Diffusion and Effusion, 250Problems, 252Special Topics6A.1 Deviations from Ideal Gas Law Behavior: The van der Waals Equation, 2596A.2 Analysis of the van der Waals Constants, 262Problems, 263Chapter 7 Making and Breaking of Bonds 2647.1 Energy, 2657.2 Heat, 2687.3 Heat and the Kinetic Molecular Theory, 2687.4 Specific Heat, 2697.5 State Functions, 2737.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics, 2747.7 Work, 2767.8 The Enthalpy of a System, 2807.9 Enthalpies of Reaction, 2827.10 Enthalpy as a State Function, 2857.11 Standard-State Enthalpies of Reaction, 2877.12 Calculating Enthalpies of Reaction, 2887.13 Enthalpies of Atom Combination, 2897.14 Using Enthalpies of Atom Combination to Probe Chemical Reactions, 2967.15 Bond Length and the Enthalpy of Atom Combination, 2997.16 Hess’s Law, 3007.17 Enthalpies of Formation, 301Problems, 305Chapter 8 Liquids and Solutions 3138.1 The Structure of Gases, Liquids, and Solids, 3148.2 Intermolecular Forces, 3168.3 Relative Strengths of Intermolecular Forces, 3208.4 The Kinetic Theory of Liquids, 3248.5 The Vapor Pressure of a Liquid, 3258.6 Melting Point and Freezing Point, 3288.7 Boiling Point, 3308.8 Phase Diagrams, 3328.9 Hydrogen Bonding and the Anomalous Properties of Water, 3338.10 Solutions: Like Dissolves Like, 3348.11 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Molecules, 3378.12 Soaps, Detergents, and Dry-Cleaning Agents, 3398.13 Why Do Some Solids Dissolve in Water?, 3418.14 Solubility Equilibria, 3448.15 Solubility Rules, 3468.16 Net Ionic Equations, 347Problems, 349Special Topics8A.1 Colligative Properties, 3578A.2 Depression of the Partial Pressure of a Solvent, 3588A.3 Boiling Point Elevation, 3618A.4 Freezing Point Depression, 363Problems, 365Chapter 9 Solids 3679.1 Types of Solids, 3689.2 Molecular and Network Covalent Solids, 3699.3 The Physical Properties of Molecular and Network Covalent Solids, 3729.4 Metallic Solids, 3739.5 Physical Properties That Result from the Structure of Metals, 3749.6 The Structure of Metals, 3759.7 Coordination Numbers and the Structures of Metals, 3789.8 Unit Cells: The Simplest Repeating Unit in a Crystal, 3799.9 Solid Solutions and Intermetallic Compounds, 3809.10 Semimetals, 3819.11 Ionic Solids, 3829.12 The Search for New Materials, 3859.13 Measuring the Distance Between Particles in a Unit Cell, 3889.14 Determining the Unit Cell of a Crystal, 3899.15 Calculating the Size of an Atom or Ion, 391Problems, 392Special Topics9A.1 Defects, 3979A.2 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators, 3989A.3 Thermal Conductivity, 4019A.4 Thermal Expansion, 4029A.5 Glass and Other Ceramics, 403Problems, 407Chapter 10 The Connection Between Kinetics and Equilibrium 40810.1 Reactions That Don’t Go to Completion, 40910.2 Gas-Phase Reactions, 41110.3 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction, 41310.4 The Collision Theory Model of Gas-Phase Reactions, 41510.5 Equilibrium Constant Expressions, 41810.6 Reaction Quotients: A Way to Decide Whether a Reaction is at Equilibrium, 42310.7 Changes in Concentration That Occur as a Reaction Comes to Equilibrium, 42510.8 Hidden Assumptions That Make Equilibrium Calculations Easier, 43010.9 What Do We Do When the Assumption Fails?, 43410.10 The Effect of Temperature on an Equilibrium Constant, 43610.11 Le Châtelier’s Principle, 43710.12 Le Châtelier’s Principle and the Haber Process, 44310.13 What Happens When a Solid Dissolves in Water?, 44510.14 The Solubility Product Expression, 44610.15 The Relationship Between Ksp and the Solubility of a Salt, 44810.16 The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) in Solubility Calculations, 45110.17 The Common-Ion Effect, 453Problems, 458Chapter 11 Acids and Bases 46811.1 Properties of Acids and Bases, 46911.2 The Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases, 46911.3 The Brønsted–Lowry Definition of Acids and Bases, 47011.4 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs, 47211.5 The Role of Water in the Brønsted Model, 47411.6 To What Extent Does Water Dissociate to Form Ions?, 47511.7 pH as a Measure of the Concentration of the H3O+ Ion, 47811.8 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases, 48111.9 Relative Strengths of Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs, 48511.10 Relative Strengths of Different Acids and Bases, 48611.11 Relationship of Structure to Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases, 49011.12 Strong Acid pH Calculations, 49411.13 Weak Acid pH Calculations, 49411.14 Base pH Calculations, 50011.15 Mixtures of Acids and Bases: Buffers, 50411.16 Buffers and Buffer Capacity, 50611.17 Buffers in the Body, 51011.18 Acid–Base Reactions, 51111.19 pH Titration Curves, 513Problems, 520Special Topics11A.1 Diprotic Acids, 53011A.2 Diprotic Bases, 53411A.3 Compounds That Could Be Either Acids or Bases, 536Problems, 539Chapter 12 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 54012.1 Common Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 54112.2 Determining Oxidation Numbers, 54212.3 Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 54412.4 Voltaic Cells, 54812.5 Standard Cell Potentials, 55112.6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, 55312.7 Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, 55412.8 Batteries, 55912.9 Electrochemical Cells at Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation, 56312.10 Electrolysis and Faraday’s Law, 56712.11 Electrolysis of Molten NaCl, 57112.12 Electrolysis of Aqueous NaCl, 57212.13 Electrolysis of Water, 57412.14 The Hydrogen Economy, 575Problems, 576Special Topics12.A1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations, 58512.A2 Redox Reactions in Acidic Solutions, 58512.A3 Redox Reactions in Basic Solutions, 58912.A4 Molecular Redox Reactions, 590Problems, 592Chapter 13 Chemical Thermodynamics 59413.1 Spontaneous Chemical and Physical Processes, 59513.2 Entropy and Disorder, 59613.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 59713.4 Standard-State Entropies of Reaction, 60013.5 The Third Law of Thermodynamics, 60013.6 Calculating Entropy Changes for Chemical Reactions, 60113.7 Gibbs Free Energy, 60613.8 The Effect of Temperature on the Free Energy of a Reaction, 61213.9 Beware of Oversimplifications, 61313.10 Standard-State Free Energies of Reaction, 61313.11 Equilibria Expressed in Partial Pressures, 61513.12 Interpreting Standard-State Free Energy of Reaction Data, 61913.13 The Relationship between Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants, 62013.14 The Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constants, 62613.15 Gibbs Free Energies of Formation and Absolute Entropies, 630Problems, 632Chapter 14 Kinetics 64014.1 The Forces That Control a Chemical Reaction, 64114.2 Chemical Kinetics, 64214.3 Is the Rate of Reaction Constant?, 64214.4 Instantaneous Rates of Reaction, 64414.5 Rate Laws and Rate Constants, 64514.6 The Rate Law Versus the Stoichiometry of a Reaction, 64614.7 Order and Molecularity, 64714.8 A Collision Theory Model of Chemical Reactions, 65014.9 The Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions, 65214.10 Zero-Order Reactions, 65414.11 Determining the Order of a Reaction from Rates of Reaction, 65514.12 The Integrated Form of Zero-, First-, and Second-Order Rate Laws, 65814.13 Determining the Order of a Reaction with the Integrated Form of Rate Laws 66314.14 Reactions That Are First-Order in Two Reactants, 66614.15 The Activation Energy of Chemical Reactions, 66714.16 Catalysts and the Rates of Chemical Reactions, 66914.17 Determining the Activation Energy of a Reaction, 67114.18 The Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions, 673Problems, 675Special Topics14A.1 Deriving the Integrated Rate Laws, 686Chapter 15 Nuclear Chemistry 68815.1 Radioactivity, 68915.2 The Structure of the Atom, 69015.3 Modes of Radioactive Decay, 69215.4 Neutron-Rich Versus Neutron-Poor Nuclides, 69415.5 Binding Energy Calculations, 69715.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay, 70015.7 Dating by Radioactive Decay, 70315.8 Ionizing Versus Nonionizing Radiation, 70515.9 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 70615.10 Natural Versus Induced Radioactivity, 70915.11 Nuclear Fission, 71315.12 Nuclear Fusion, 71515.13 Nuclear Synthesis, 71715.14 Nuclear Medicine, 719Problems, 720Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 72316.1 What Is an Organic Compound?, 72416.2 The Saturated Hydrocarbons or Alkanes, 72616.3 Rotation Around C—C Bonds, 72916.4 The Nomenclature of Alkanes, 73016.5 The Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Alkenes and Alkynes, 73316.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives, 73516.7 The Chemistry of Petroleum Products, 73716.8 The Chemistry of Coal, 74016.9 Functional Groups, 74216.10 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 74616.11 Alkyl Halides, 75016.12 Alcohols and Ethers, 75216.13 Aldehydes and Ketones, 75516.14 Reactions at the Carbonyl Group, 75716.15 Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylate Ions, 75916.16 Esters, 76116.17 Amines, Alkaloids, and Amides, 76316.18 Alkene Stereoisomers, 76516.19 Stereogenic Atoms, 76816.20 Optical Activity, 771Problems, 774Appendix AA.1 Systems of Units A-2The English Units of Measurement A-2SI Units of Measurement A-3Derived SI Units A-4Non-SI Units A-4Conversion Factors A-5A.2 Uncertainty in Measurement A-6Systematic and Random Errors A-6Accuracy and Precision A-7A.3 Significant figures A-8Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures A-9Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures A-10Rounding Off A-10A.4 Scientific Notation A-10A.5 The Graphical Treatment of Data A-12A.6 Significant Figures and Unit Conversion Worksheet A-15Significant Figures A-15Counting Significant Figures in a Measurement A-15Measurements versus Definitions A-18Unit Conversions A-19Appendix BTable B.1 Values of Selected Fundamental Constants B-2Table B.2 Selected Conversion Factors B-2Table B.3 The Vapor Pressure of Water B-3Table B.4 Radii of Atoms and Ions B-4Table B.5 Ionization Energies B-6Table B.6 Electron Affinities B-8Table B.7 Electronegativities B-9Table B.8 Acid-Dissociation Equilibrium Constants B-10Table B.9 Base-Ionization Equilibrium Constants B-11Table B.10 Solubility Product Equilibrium Constants B-12Table B.11 Complex Formation Equilibrium Constants B-13Table B.12 Standard Reduction Potentials B-14Table B.13 Standard-State Enthalpies, Free Energies and Entropies of Atom Combination B- 17Table B.14 Bond-Dissociation Enthalpies B-25Table B.15 Electron Configuration of the First 86 Elements B-26Table B.16 Standard-State Enthalpy of Formation, Free Energy of Formation and Absolute Entropy Data B-28Appendix CAnswers to Selected Problems C-1Appendix DAnswers to Checkpoints D-1Photo Credits P-1Index I-1Modules (available at www.wiley.com/college/spencer)Module 1 Chemistry of the NonmetalsModule 2 Transition Metal ChemistryModule 3 Complex Ion EquilibriaModule 4 Organic Chemistry: Structure and Nomenclature of HydrocarbonsModule 5 Organic Chemistry: Functional GroupsModule 6 Organic Chemistry: Reaction MechanismsModule 7 Polymer ChemistryModule 8 BiochemistryModule 9 Chemical Analysis