Chemical Process Design and Integration

Professor Robin Smith is Head of the Centre for Process Integration at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) in the United Kingdom. Before joining UMIST he had extensive industrial experience with Rohm & Haas in process investigation and process design, and with ICI in computer-aided design and process integration. He was a member of the ICI Process Integration Team that pioneered the first industrial applications of process integration design methods. Since joining UMIST he has acted extensively as a consultant in process integration projects. He has published widely in the field of chemical process design and integration, and is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in the UK and a chartered engineer. In 1992 he was awarded the Hanson Medal of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in the UK for his work on clean process technology.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgements xvNomenclature xviiReferences 581 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration 11.1 Chemical Products 11.2 Formulation of Design Problems 31.3 Synthesis and Simulation 41.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration 61.5 Continuous and Batch Processes 81.6 New Design and Retrofit 111.7 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability 111.8 Process Control 121.9 Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration 131.10 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration – Summary 16References 172 Process Economics 192.1 The Role of Process Economics 192.2 Capital Cost for New Design 192.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit 252.4 Annualized Capital Cost 262.5 Operating Cost 272.6 Simple Economic Criteria 302.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation 312.8 Investment Criteria 332.9 Process Economics–Summary 342.10 Exercises 34References 363 Optimization 373.1 Objective Functions 373.2 Single-Variable Optimization 403.3 Multivariable Optimization 423.4 Constrained Optimization 453.5 Linear Programming 473.6 Nonlinear Programming 493.7 Structural Optimization 503.8 Solution of Equations Using Optimization 543.9 The Search for Global Optimality 553.10 Optimization – Summary 563.11 Exercises 564 Chemical Reactors I – Reactor Performance 594.1 Reaction Path 594.2 Types of Reaction Systems 614.3 Measures of Reactor Performance 634.4 Rate of Reaction 644.5 Idealized Reactor Models 654.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model 734.7 Choice of Reactor Performance 764.8 Reactor Performance – Summary 774.9 Exercises 78References 795 Chemical Reactors II – Reactor Conditions 815.1 Reaction Equilibrium 815.2 Reactor Temperature 855.3 Reactor Pressure 925.4 Reactor Phase 935.5 Reactor Concentration 945.6 Biochemical Reactions 995.7 Catalysts 995.8 Reactor Conditions – Summary 1025.9 Exercises 103References 1056 Chemical Reactors III – Reactor Configuration 1076.1 Temperature Control 1076.2 Catalyst Degradation 1116.3 Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Reactors 1126.4 Reactor Configuration 1166.5 Reactor Configuration For Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions 1216.6 Reactor Configuration – Summary 1226.7 Exercises 122References 1237 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures 1257.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation 1257.2 Settling and Sedimentation 1267.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation 1307.4 Electrostatic Precipitation 1317.5 Filtration 1337.6 Scrubbing 1347.7 Flotation 1357.8 Drying 1367.9 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures – Summary 1377.10 Exercises 137References 1388 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I – Distillation 1398.1 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 1398.2 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 1418.3 Single-Stage Separation 1468.4 Distillation 1468.5 Binary Distillation 1508.6 Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 1558.7 Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 1628.8 Column Dimensions 1648.9 Conceptual Design of Distillation 1748.10 Detailed Design of Distillation 1768.11 Limitations of Distillation 1798.12 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation – Summary 1808.13 Exercises 180References 1839 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II – Other Methods 1859.1 Absorption and Stripping 1859.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 1899.3 Adsorption 1969.4 Membranes 1999.5 Crystallization 2119.6 Evaporation 2159.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods – Summary 2179.8 Exercises 217References 21910 Distillation Sequencing 22110.1 Distillation Sequencing using Simple Columns 22110.2 Practical Constraints Restricting Options 22110.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns 22210.4 Distillation Sequencing using Columns With More Than Two Products 22910.5 Distillation Sequencing using Thermal Coupling 23110.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences 23610.7 Crude Oil Distillation 23710.8 Structural Optimization of Distillation Sequences 23910.9 Distillation Sequencing – Summary 24210.10 Exercises 242References 24511 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation 24711.1 Azeotropic Systems 24711.2 Change in Pressure 24711.3 Representation of Azeotropic Distillation 24811.4 Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions 25011.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions 25511.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions 25611.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer 25911.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation 26411.9 Entrainer Selection 26711.10 Multicomponent Systems 27011.11 Trade-Offs in Azeotropic Distillation 27011.12 Membrane Separation 27011.13 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation – Summary 27111.14 Exercises 272References 27312 Heat Exchange 27512.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 27512.2 Heat Exchanger Fouling 27912.3 Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 28112.4 Heat Exchanger Geometry 28812.5 Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 29412.6 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 29412.7 Rating and Simulation of Heat Exchangers 30112.8 Heat Transfer Enhancement 30712.9 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers 31312.10 Condensers 31612.11 Reboilers and Vaporizers 32112.12 Other Types of Heat Exchangers 32612.13 Fired Heaters 32812.14 Heat Exchange – Summary 34512.15 Exercises 346References 34813 Pumping and Compression 34913.1 Pressure Drops in Process Operations 34913.2 Pressure Drops in Piping Systems 34913.3 Pump Types 35513.4 Centrifugal Pump Performance 35613.5 Compressor Types 36313.6 Reciprocating Compressors 36613.7 Dynamic Compressors 36713.8 Staged Compression 36913.9 Compressor Performance 37013.10 Process Expanders 37213.11 Pumping and Compression –Summary 37413.12 Exercises 374References 37514 Continuous Process Recycle Structure 37714.1 The Function of Process Recycles 37714.2 Recycles with Purges 38214.3 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 38514.4 The Process Yield 38614.5 Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage 38814.6 Continuous Process Recycle Structure – Summary 38914.7 Exercises 389References 39115 Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization 39315.1 Physical Property Models for Process Simulation 39315.2 Unit Models for Process Simulation 39415.3 Flowsheet Models 40015.4 Simulation of Recycles 40015.5 Convergence of Recycles 40215.6 Design Specifications 40815.7 Flowsheet Sequencing 40815.8 Model Validation 40815.9 Process Optimization 40815.10 Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization – Summary 41315.11 Exercises 413References 41616 Batch Processes 41716.1 Characteristics of Batch Processes 41716.2 Batch Reactors 41716.3 Batch Distillation 42016.4 Batch Crystallization 43116.5 Batch Filtration 43216.6 Batch Heating and Cooling 43316.7 Optimization of Batch Operations 43616.8 Gantt Charts 44216.9 Production Schedules for Single Products 44216.10 Production Schedules for Multiple Products 44416.11 Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer 44516.12 Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes 44616.13 Storage in Batch Processes 45216.14 Batch Processes – Summary 45216.15 Exercises 452References 45517 Heat Exchanger Networks I – Network Targets 45717.1 Composite Curves 45717.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch 46117.3 Threshold Problems 46417.4 The Problem Table Algorithm 46617.5 Non-global Minimum Temperature Differences 47217.6 Process Constraints 47317.7 Utility Selection 47517.8 Furnaces 47717.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation) 48017.10 Integration of Heat Pumps 48517.11 Number of Heat Exchange Units 48617.12 Heat Exchange Area Targets 48917.13 Sensitivity of Targets 49317.14 Capital and Total Cost Targets 49317.15 Heat Exchanger Network Targets –Summary 49617.16 Exercises 496References 49918 Heat Exchanger Networks II – Network Design 50118.1 The Pinch Design Method 50118.2 Design for Threshold Problems 50718.3 Stream Splitting 50718.4 Design for Multiple Pinches 51118.5 Remaining Problem Analysis 51618.6 Simulation of Heat Exchanger Networks 51818.7 Optimization of a Fixed Network Structure 52018.8 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Design 52318.9 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit with a Fixed Network Structure 52518.10 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit through Structural Changes 53018.11 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit 53618.12 Heat Exchanger Network Design –Summary 53818.13 Exercises 539References 54219 Heat Exchanger Networks III – Stream Data 54319.1 Process Changes for Heat Integration 54319.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost 54319.3 Data Extraction 54419.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data – Summary 55119.5 Exercises 551References 55320 Heat Integration of Reactors 55520.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors 55520.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors 55720.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors 55820.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration 56020.5 Heat Integration of Reactors – Summary 56120.6 Exercises 561Reference 56121 Heat Integration of Distillation 56321.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation 56321.2 The Appropriate Placement of Distillation 56321.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation 56421.4 Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration 56421.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation 56721.6 Capital Cost Considerations for the Integration of Distillation 56721.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences 56821.8 Design of Heat Integrated Distillation Sequences 57121.9 Heat Integration of Distillation – Summary 57221.10 Exercises 572References 57522 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers 57722.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators 57722.2 Appropriate Placement of Evaporators 57722.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration 57722.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers 57922.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration 57922.6 A Case Study 58122.7 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers – Summary 58122.8 Exercises 582References 58223 Steam Systems and Cogeneration 58323.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 58523.2 Steam Boilers 58923.3 Gas Turbines 59523.4 Steam Turbines 60223.5 Steam Distrubution 60923.6 Site Composite Curves 61223.7 Cogeneration Targets 62323.8 Power Generation and Machine Drives 62723.9 Utility Simulation 63123.10 Optimizing Steam Systems 63323.11 Steam Costs 63823.12 Steam Systems and Cogeneration – Summary 64123.13 Exercises 642References 64524 Cooling and Refrigeration Systems 64724.1 Cooling Systems 64724.2 Once-Through Water Cooling 64724.3 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems 64724.4 Air Coolers 65024.5 Refrigeration 65624.6 Choice of a Single-Component Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration 66224.7 Targeting Refrigeration Power for Pure Component Compression Refrigeration 66524.8 Heat Integration of Pure Component Compression Refrigeration Processes 66924.9 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration 67324.10 Expanders 67724.11 Absorption Refrigeration 68124.12 Indirect Refrigeration 68224.13 Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems – Summary 68224.14 Exercises 683References 68525 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions 68725.1 Atmospheric Pollution 68725.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution 68825.3 Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere 69025.4 Control of VOC Emissions 69025.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions 70325.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions 70825.7 Control of Combustion Emissions 71125.8 Atmospheric Dispersion 71425.9 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions – Summary 71625.10 Exercises 717References 72026 Water System Design 72126.1 Aqueous Contamination 72426.2 Primary Treatment Processes 72526.3 Biological Treatment Processes 72926.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes 73226.5 Water Use 73326.6 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads 73526.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads 73726.8 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates 74726.9 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates 75126.10 Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 75826.11 Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption 76026.12 Targeting for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 76126.13 Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 76526.14 Regeneration of Wastewater 76726.15 Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 77226.16 Data Extraction 77326.17 Water System Design – Summary 77526.18 Exercises 776References 77927 Environmental Sustainability in Chemical Production 78127.1 Life Cycle Assessment 78127.2 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Within Processes 78627.3 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Between Processes 79227.4 Exploitation of Renewable Raw Materials 79427.5 Efficient Use of Energy 79527.6 Integration of Waste Treament and Energy Sytems 80527.7 Renewable Energy 80627.8 Efficient Use of Water 80727.9 Sustainability in Chemical Production – Summary 80727.10 Exercises 808References 80928 Process Safety 81128.1 Fire 81128.2 Explosion 81228.3 Toxic Release 81328.4 Hazard Identification 81328.5 The Hierarchy of Safety Management 81528.6 Inherently Safer Design 81528.7 Layers of Protection 81928.8 Hazard and Operability Studies 82228.9 Layer of Protection Analysis 82328.10 Process Safety – Summary 82328.11 Exercises 824References 825Appendix A Physical Properties in Process Design 827A. 1 Equations of State 827A. 2 Phase Equilibrium for Single Components 831A. 3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium 831A. 4 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 831A. 5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models 833A. 6 Group Contribution Methods for Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 835A. 7 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State 837A. 8 Calculation of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 838A. 9 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 841A. 10 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models 842A. 11 Calculation of Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 842A. 12 Choice of Method for Equilibrium Calculations 844A. 13 Calculation of Enthalpy 846A. 14 Calculation of Entropy 847A. 15 Other Physical Properties 848A. 16 Physical Properties in Process Design – Summary 850A. 17 Exercises 851References 852Appendix B Materials of Construction 853B.1 Mechanical Properties 853B.2 Corrosion 854B.3 Corrosion Allowance 855B.4 Commonly Used Materials of Construction 855B.5 Criteria for Selection 859B.6 Materials of Construction – Summary 860References 860Appendix C Annualization of Capital Cost 861Reference 861Appendix D The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1–2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 863References 863Appendix E Expression for the Minimum Number of 1–2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit 865References 866Appendix F Heat Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 867F.1 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Tube Side 867F.2 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Shell Side 869References 873Appendix G Gas Compression Theory 875G.1 Modeling Reciprocating Compressors 875G.2 Modeling Dynamic Compressors 877G.3 Staged Compression 877References 879Appendix H Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target 881Index 883