Brown's Boundary Control and Legal Principles

Donald A. Wilson is President of Donald Wilson Consulting, LLC. C.A. “Tony” Nettleman III is President and CEO of Nettleman Land Consultants, Inc. and Director of the Nettleman Institute of Land Surveying Engineering Technology, Inc. Walter G. Robillard is a Retired Surveyor.

• Preface xviiChapter 1 History and Concept of Boundaries 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Significance of Boundaries 31.3 Boundary References 41.4 Terminus: The God (or Goddess) of Boundaries 61.5 Disputes and Boundaries 71.6 Role of the Surveyor in Boundaries 91.7 What is Being Created? What is Being Located? 131.8 Original Written Title 151.9 Rights and Interests in Land are Composed of a Bundle of Rights 161.10 Role of the Court 201.11 Real and Personal Property 211.12 What Constitutes Real Property 221.13 Nature of Modern Estates 251.14 Taxes on Land and Tax Maps 251.15 Easements and Licenses 261.16 Servitudes, Restrictions, Covenants, and Conditions 301.17 Actions on Boundaries and Easements 311.18 One Unique Parcel or Boundary 321.19 The Original Boundaries are Sacred 321.20 Conclusions 33Bibliography 34Notes 34Chapter 2 How Boundaries are Created 362.1 Introduction 362.2 Definitions 372.3 Classification of Boundaries 402.4 Methods of Boundary Creation 412.5 Who May Create Boundaries? 452.6 Sanctity of the Original Survey 482.7 Original Lines Remain Fixed 492.8 Distinctions Between the Original Boundary Survey, the Retracement Survey, and the First Survey 492.9 Original Technological Methods of Boundary Creation not Relatable to Modern Methods 512.10 Original Lines may be Redescribed as a Result of a Retracement 512.11 Conclusions 52Notes 53Chapter 3 Ownership, Transfer, and Description of Real Property and Accompanying Rights 543.1 Concepts of Boundaries, Land Ownership, and Land Descriptions 543.2 Overview of Boundaries 563.3 Public and Private Lands 593.4 Sources of Title 603.5 Voluntary Transfer of Real Property 613.6 Chain of Title 613.7 Torrens Title System 633.8 Unwritten Rights or Title to Land 633.9 Methods of Voluntary Transfer of Title 643.10 Deed or Description 653.11 Title or Lien 663.12 Deed of Trust 663.13 Mortgage 673.14 Escrow 673.15 Title assurance and Title Insurance 673.16 Abstractors 693.17 Attorney’s Opinion 693.18 General land Descriptions 693.19 What is in a Description? 703.20 Measurements 713.21 Magnetic Directions 753.22 Reference Datums 773.23 Elements of Land Descriptions 783.24 Types of Descriptions 793.25 Conclusions 81Notes 81Chapter 4 Boundaries, Law, and Related Presumptions 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Constitutional Law and the Surveyor 844.3 Jurisdiction 854.4 Federal Jurisdiction 854.5 Federal Government, Agency, or Officer as a Party 864.6 Sovereign Immunity 874.7 United States as a Defendant 874.8 Disposing of Federal Lands 874.9 Color of Title Act 884.10 Public Law 120 884.11 Small Tracts Act 884.12 Researching the Laws 894.13 Court Reports 904.14 Legal Research 904.15 Judicial Notice 924.16 Evidence 934.17 Presumptions 944.18 Common Presumptions 954.19 Survey Systems Present in the United States 974.20 Conclusions 100Bibliography 100Notes 100Chapter 5 Creation and Interpretation of Metes and Bounds and other Nonsectionalized Descriptions 1025.1 Introduction 1025.2 Methods of Creating Metes and Bounds or Nonsectionalized Descriptions 1065.3 Metes Descriptions 1065.4 Bounds Descriptions 1095.5 Combination Metes and Bounds Descriptions 1105.6 Strip Descriptions and Stationing 1115.7 Descriptions by Reference 1125.8 Aliquot Descriptions 1125.9 Other Means of Creating Boundaries in Descriptions 1145.10 Nomenclature in Metes and Bounds Descriptions 1165.11 Adjoiners 1245.12 Deed Terms for Curves 1245.13 Lines and Their Elements 1265.14 Tax Descriptions and Abbreviated Descriptions 1335.15 Subdivision Descriptions 1355.16 Parcels Created by Protraction 1375.17 Features of Platting Acts 1375.18 Writing Land Descriptions 1385.19 Early Surveys 1395.20 Priority of Calls in Metes and Bounds Surveys 1415.21 Applying Priority Calls 1425.22 Conclusions 144Notes 145Chapter 6 Creation and Retracement of General Land Office (GLO) Boundaries 1466.1 Introduction 1466.2 Original Surveys and Corrective Surveys 1496.3 Law, Manuals, and Special Instructions 1496.4 Effect of Manuals on Resurveys 1506.5 History of The Public Land Survey System 1516.6 Testing Ground: The Seven Ranges 1536.7 Act of May 18, 1796—Clarification of 1785 1576.8 Acts of 1800 1596.9 1803—The System Explodes 1626.10 Act of March 26, 1804 1636.11 Act of February 11, 1805 1636.12 Land Surveys After 1805 1666.13 Survey Instructions 1676.14 State Instructions and Statutes 1726.15 Instruments Used 1806.16 Field Notes 1816.17 Nomenclature for Sections 1816.18 Meandering 1826.19 Resurveys and Retracements 1836.20 Defective Boundaries Encountered in Resurveys 1836.21 Sectionalized Surveys and Innovations 1846.22 Irregular Original Government Subdivisions 1846.23 Townships Other than Regular 1856.24 Locating GLO Records in State Archives 1856.25 Summary of the GLO System 187Notes 190Chapter 7 Federal and State Nonsectionalized Land Surveys 1917.1 Introduction 1917.2 Early New England and Other Colonial-ERA Surveys 1957.3 Ohio Company of Associates 1957.4 Donation Tract 1967.5 Symmes Purchase 1977.6 Virginia Military District 1977.7 US Military Tract 1987.8 Connecticut Western Reserve and Firelands 1997.9 Moravian Tracts 1997.10 Florida Keys Survey 1997.11 Donation Land Claims 2007.12 Exchange Surveys and Their Status 2007.13 Prior Land Grants from Foreign Governments 2017.14 French Grants in the Louisiana Purchase 2017.15 Mississippi Townships 2057.16 Soldier’s Additional Homestead 2067.17 Indian Allotment Surveys 2067.18 National Forest Homestead Entry 2067.19 Tennessee Townships 2077.20 Florida: Forbes Company Purchase Surveys 2087.21 Georgia Lot System 2097.22 Land Tenure Systems of Texas 2137.23 General Comments 2147.24 Hawaiian Land Laws 2147.25 Puerto Rican Land Surveys 2177.26 Federal Mineral Surveys: General Comments 2207.27 Water and Mineral Right Laws 2207.28 Land Open to Appropriation of Minerals 2217.29 Veins, Lodes, or Ledges 2217.30 Extralateral and Intralimital Rights 2227.31 Mill Sites 2247.32 Tunnel Locations 2247.33 Size of Claims 2247.34 Discovery 2257.35 Locations 2257.36 Possession 2267.37 Annual Expenditures 2267.38 Requirements for Patent 2277.39 United States Mineral Surveyors 2277.40 Survey of the Claim 2277.41 Conclusions 228Recommended Reading 229Notes 229Chapter 8 Locating Easements and Reversions 2308.1 Introduction 2308.2 Rights Granted 2338.3 Fee Title or Easement Right 2368.4 Three Easement Descriptions and Three Boundaries 2378.5 Ownership of the Bed of Easements 2378.6 Surveyor’s Responsibility as to Easements 2388.7 Requirements for Locating Easements 2388.8 Centerline Presumption 2398.9 Conveyances with Private Way Boundaries 2408.10 Use of Easements 2418.11 Revival of Public Easements 2418.12 Creation of Easement Boundaries 2418.13 Dividing Private Street Ownership 2448.14 Words Used in Centerline Conveyances 2458.15 Apportioning Reversion Rights 2468.16 General Principle of Reversion 2468.17 Reversion Rights of a Lot on a Curved Street 2478.18 Lots Adjoining Two Subdivision Boundaries 2498.19 Lots at an Angle Point in a Road 2498.20 Indeterminate Situations 2508.21 Exceptions to the Rules of Apportionment 2518.22 Describing Vacated Streets and Easements 2528.23 Litigating Easements 2548.24 Conclusions 254Notes 254Chapter 9 Riparian and Littoral Boundaries 2569.1 Introduction 2569.2 Ownership of the Seas 2 2609.3 Ownership of the US Territorial Sea 2619.4 Ownership of Interior Tidal Waters of the United States 2639.5 Landward Boundary of Tidal Waters 2639.6 Ownership of Nontidal Navigable Waters 2679.7 Landward Boundaries of Nontidal Waters 2689.8 Significance of Public Land Survey Meander Lines 27 2699.9 Ownership of Non–Publicly Owned Submerged Lands 2709.10 Swamp and Overflowed Lands 2729.11 Navigational Servitude 2739.12 Public Regulation of Riparian and Littoral Lands 2739.13 Shoreline Changes and Water Boundaries 2749.14 Apportionment of Riparian and Littoral Rights 2769.15 Emergent or Omitted Islands 2829.16 Water Boundaries Other Than Sea 2829.17 Major Recognized Areas 2839.18 Conclusions and Recommendations 283Notes 283Chapter 10 Retracing and “resurveying” Sectionalized Lands 28610.1 Introduction 28610.2 Areas of Authority 29210.3 Resurvey or Retracement 29310.4 Types of Surveys and Resurveys 29410.5 Court of Proper Jurisdiction 29510.6 Federal Patents 29610.7 Intent of the Government 29610.8 Senior Rights 29710.9 Following the Footsteps 29710.10 Lines Marked and Surveyed 29810.11 Original Corners 29810.12 Original Field Notes and Plats 29910.13 Closing Corners 30010.14 Identification of Corners and Lines 30110.15 Monuments and Their Identification 30210.16 Evidence of Corners 30310.17 Use of Testimony in Boundaries 30410.18 Common Usage 30510.19 Using Recorded Information to Locate Original Lines 30610.20 Proportioning: The Last Resort 30610.21 Relocating Lost Corners 30710.22 Proportionate Measure or Proration 30910.23 Single Proportionate Measurement 30910.24 Double Proportionate Measurement 31010.25 Restoration of Lost Standard Corners on Standard Parallels, Correction Lines, and Baselines 31210.26 Restoration of Lost Township Corners on Principal Meridians and Guide Meridians 31210.27 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Originally Established with Cross-Ties in Four Directions 31310.28 Restoration of Lost Corners Along Township Lines 31310.29 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Where the Line was not Established in One Direction 31410.30 Restoration of Lost Corners Where the Intersecting Lines have been Established in Only Two Directions 31510.31 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners in Regular Sections 31610.32 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners Where only Part of A Section was Surveyed Originally 31610.33 Restoration of a Closing Section Corner on a Standard Parallel 31610.34 Restoration of a Lost North Quarter Corner in a Closing Section 31810.35 Restoration of Lost Nonriparian Meander Corners 31910.36 Restoration of Riparian Meander Lines 31910.37 Restoration of Nonriparian Meander Lines 32010.38 Restoration of Irregular Exteriors 32110.39 Lost Corner Restoration Methods 32110.40 Resurvey Instructions Issued in 1879 and 1883 32110.41 Half-Mile Posts in Florida and Alabama 322Subdivision of Sections 32310.42 General Comments 32310.43 Subdivision by Protraction 32310.44 Establishing the North Quarter Corner of Closing Sections on a Standard Parallel and other Quarter Corners not Originally Set 32410.45 Establishment of Centerlines and Center Quarter Corners 32510.46 Establishment of Quarter–Quarter Section Lines and Corners 32710.47 Fractional Sections Centerline 32710.48 Senior Right of Lines 32810.49 Gross Errors and Erroneously Omitted Areas 32810.50 Relocating Corners from other Townships or From Interior Corners 33010.51 Procedures for Conducting Retracements 33110.52 Interpretation of Aliquot Descriptions 33210.53 According to the Government Measure 334Differences Between State and Federal Interpretations 33410.54 Applying State Laws 33410.55 Topography 33510.56 Boundaries by Area 33610.57 Establishing Corners 33710.58 Sections Created Under State Jurisdiction 33710.59 Presumptions and Realities for GLO Surveys 33810.60 Conclusions 341Notes 341Chapter 11 Locating Sequential Conveyances 34311.1 Introduction 34311.2 Definition of Sequential Conveyances 34711.3 Simultaneous Conveyances 34711.4 Possession 34811.5 Sequential Patents 34811.6 Importance of Knowledge 34811.7 Junior and Senior Rights Between Private Parties 34911.8 Junior and Senior Rights Between Private Parties; Exception 35011.9 Deeds Must be in Writing and Deemed to be Whole 35011.10 Direction of the Survey 35111.11 Terms of the Deed 35211.12 Call for a Plat 35211.13 Informative and Controlling Terms 353Order of Importance of Conflicting Title Elements 35411.14 General Comments 35411.15 Senior Rights 35511.16 Call for an Adjoiner 35611.17 Written Intentions of the Parties to the Deed 35711.18 Aids to Interpret the Intent of a Deed 35811.19 Control of Unwritten Title Lines 35911.20 Lines Marked and Surveyed 35911.21 Corner Definitions 36111.22 Control of Monuments 36211.23 Control Between Conflicting Monuments 36411.24 Explanation of the Principles 36511.25 Importance of the Word “TO” 36911.26 Dignity of Record Monuments 36911.27 Control Point of a Monument 36911.28 Uncalled-For Monuments 37011.29 Error or Mistake in a Description 37111.30 Control of Bearing and Distance 37111.31 Control of Either Bearing or Distance 37211.32 Distribution of Errors in Several Boundary Lines 37511.33 Cardinal Directions 37611.34 Unrestricted General Terms 37711.35 Direction of Survey 37711.36 Area or Surface 37811.37 Point of Beginning 37911.38 Construed Most Strongly Against Grantor 37911.39 Errors and Ambiguous Terms 37911.40 Coordinates 38011.41 Direct Line Measurement 38111.42 Treatment of Curves 38211.43 First Stated Conditions 38211.44 Written and Character Numbers 38311.45 Unit Implied 38311.46 Feet and Inches 38311.47 General and Particular Provisions 383Basis of Bearings 38411.48 Deflection Method Versus Compass Bearings 38411.49 Sequential Conveyances in Texas 38811.50 Summary, Interpretation of the Principles, and Conclusion 389Bibliography 390Notes 390Chapter 12 Locating Simultaneously Created Boundaries 39312.1 Introduction 39312.2 Defining Subdivisions 397Subdivision Boundaries and corners 39812.3 Aliquot Part Subdivision 39812.4 Controlling Boundaries 39812.5 Subdivision Macro Boundary Wrongly Monumented 40012.6 Subdivision Boundaries Incorrectly Described 401Conflicting Elements in Descriptions 40112.7 General Comments 40112.8 Original Method of Creating Lots 40112.9 Intention of the Parties 40212.10 Finality of Original Lines 40212.11 Control of Original Monuments within Subdivision Boundaries 40412.12 Title Monuments 40512.13 Control of Monuments Over Plats 40512.14 Certainty of Monument Identification 40612.15 Record Description of Monuments 40612.16 Principles for Presumed Control Between Conflicting Monuments Within Subdivisions 40712.17 Explaining Principles 40712.18 Introduction to Proportioning 411Establishment of Streets 41212.19 General Comments 41212.20 Establishment of Streets by Natural Monuments 41212.21 Establishment of Streets and Alleys By Artificial Monuments and Lines Actually Run at The Time of Making The Plat 41312.22 Establishment of Streets by Improvements 41512.23 Establishment of Streets by the Line of a Nearby Street 41612.24 Establishment of Streets by Plat 41712.25 Establishment of Streets Where Width is not Given 41812.26 Establishment of Streets by City Engineers’ Monuments 418Establishment of Lots within Subdivisions 42012.27 Effect of Mathematical Error 42012.28 Excess or Deficiency 42112.29 Proration: A Rule of Last Resort 42112.30 Excess OR Deficiency Confined to a Block 42212.31 Excess OR Deficiency Distribution Within Blocks 42212.32 Single Proportionate Measure 42312.33 Single Proportionate Measure on Curves 42412.34 Distribution of Excess and Deficiency Beyond a Monument 42612.35 Establishment of Lots Where the End Lot Measurement is not Given 42712.36 Remnant Principle 42712.37 Establishment of Lots Where no Lot Measurement is Given 43212.38 Establishment of Lots with Area only Given 43212.39 New York Rule for Establishment of Lots 43312.40 Summary of Proration Rules 43612.41 Establishment of Lots Adjoining Subdivision Boundaries 43712.42 Establishment of Lots Adjoining a Subdivision Correctly Established 43712.43 Establishment of Lots Overlapping the True Subdivision Boundaries 43712.44 Establishment of Lots not Touching the True Boundary of the Subdivision 43812.45 Proration of Excess and Deficiency in Blocks Closing on Subdivision Boundaries 43912.46 Locating Lots from Boundary Lines 44012.47 Obliterated and Lost Subdivisions 440Proceedings in Partition 44112.48 General Comments 44112.49 Establishment of Lines Determined by Proceedings in Partition 44112.50 Establishment of Boundaries of Allottees of Wills 44212.51 Deed Divisions 44212.52 Comments 442Notes 443Chapter 13 Locating Combination Descriptions and Conveyances 44513.1 Introduction 445“OF” Descriptions 44713.2 “OF,” “IN,” and “AT” Descriptions within Subdivisions and Adjoining Streets 44713.3 “OF” Descriptions within Metes and Bounds Descriptions and Adjoining Streets 44913.4 Direction of Measurement 45213.5 Proportional “OF” Conveyance 45213.6 Exception by One-Half by Area 45413.7 Indeterminate Proportional Conveyances 45513.8 Angular Direction of the Dividing Line in “OF” Descriptions 45513.9 Acreage “OF” Descriptions 45813.10 Ambiguity 460Overlaps and Gaps 46313.11 Calls From Two Directions 463Establishment of Property Described by Both Metes and Bounds and Subdivision Descriptions 46413.12 Double Descriptions 46413.13 New York Double Descriptions 46513.14 Natural Phenomena and Boundaries 46513.15 Recognition of Past Events 469Notes 471Chapter 14 Role of the Surveyor 47214.1 Introduction 47214.2 Function of the Surveyor 47414.3 Opinions of Fact and Applications of Law 47414.4 Establishment of Boundaries 47614.5 Establishment in Louisiana 477Private Surveys 47714.6 Responsibility and Authority of the Surveyor 47714.7 Basis of a Boundary Survey 47914.8 How Much Research? 47914.9 Ownership 48114.10 Encroachments 48114.11 Searching for Monuments 48114.12 Possession Marking Original Survey Lines 48214.13 Evidence 48314.14 Setting Monuments 48314.15 Plats 48414.16 Liability 48514.17 Conclusion 486Notes 488Chapter 15 The Ethics and Moral Responsibilities of Boundary Creation and Retracements 48915.1 Introduction 48915.2 The Philosophy of Boundaries 49015.3 Applying the Principles to Creating and Retracing Boundaries 49215.4 Final Comments 497Notes 498Glossary of Terms 499Index 525