Bioresource Technology

Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, is Assistant Professor at the University Centre for Research and Development at Chandigarh University in Punjab, India.Bisma Malik, is Assistant Professor at the University Centre for Research and Development at Chandigarh University in Punjab, India. Rouf Ahmad Bhat, works in the Department of School Education, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India Khalid Rehman Hakeem, is Professor at King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

• Part I: The Application of Bioresource Technology in the Functional Food Sector 11 Millets: Robust Entrants to Functional Food Sector 3Sagar Maitra, Sandipan Pine, Pradipta Banerjee, Biswajit Pramanick and Tanmoy Shankar1.1 Introduction 41.2 Nomenclature and Use 51.3 Description of Important Millets 71.3.1 Sorghum 71.3.2 Pearl Millet 71.3.3 Finger Millet 81.3.4 Foxtail Millet 81.3.5 Proso Millet 81.3.6 Barnyard Millet 81.3.7 Little Millet 91.3.8 Kodo Millet 91.3.9 Brown-Top Millet 91.4 Millets: The Ancient Crops 91.5 Current Scenario of Millets Production 101.6 Nutritional Importance of Millets 111.6.1 Millets as Functional Food 131.6.2 Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Aging Properties 141.6.3 Protection Against Cancer 151.6.4 Anti-Diabetic Properties 151.6.5 Protection Against Gastro-Intestinal Disorders 151.6.7 Protection Against Osteoporosis 161.7 Changes in Food Consumption Pattern and Future Demand 161.8 Food and Nutritional Security 171.9 Climate Change and Associated Threat to Agriculture 181.10 Millets: As Climate Smart Crops 191.11 Future Agriculture: Smart Technologies in Millet Farming 201.12 Conclusions 21References 212 The Art and Science of Growing Microgreens 28Sreenivasan Ettammal2.1 Introduction 282.2 Historical Background 292.3 Health Benefits of Microgreens 292.3.1 Source of Functional Food Components 292.3.2 Component of Space Life Support Systems 302.3.3 Component of Nutritional Diet of Troops and Residents of High Altitude Regions 302.4 Cultivation Practices 302.4.1 Species Selection 302.4.2 Growing Media and Propagation Felts 302.4.3 Growing Process 312.5 Quality and Shelf Life 332.6 Market Trends 342.7 Future Outlook 342.8 Conclusions 34References 353 Novel Nutraceuticals From Marine Resources 38Zadia Qamar, Amna Syeda, Javed Ahmed and M. Irfan Qureshi3.1 Introduction 383.2 Marine Microorganisms as a Source of Nutraceuticals 393.2.1 Marine Algae 403.2.2 Marine Invertebrates 413.2.2.1 Sponges 413.2.2.2 Crustaceans, Echinoderms and Molluscs 423.2.2.3 Marine Fishes 423.2.2.4 Marine Actinomycetes 433.2.2.5 Marine Fungi 433.2.2.6 Marine Bacteria 443.3 Classification of Different Nutraceuticals Obtained from Marine Environment 443.3.1 Polysaccharides 443.3.2 Marine Lipids 453.3.3 Natural Pigments from Marine Sources 453.3.4 Chitosan and Its Derivatives 483.3.5 Proteins and Peptides 483.3.6 Minerals, Vitamins and Enzymes 493.3.7 Marine Probiotics and Phenolic Compounds 493.4 Important Bioactive Metabolites and Their Biological Properties 503.5 Current Status of Nutraceuticals in Market 503.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 51References 514 Bioprospecting of Bioresources: Creating Value From Bioresources 57Deepika Kathuria and Sumit S. Chourasiya4.1 Introduction 574.2 Bioprospecting in Various Industrial Fields 594.2.1 Pharmaceutical Industries 594.2.1.1 Drugs From Plants 594.2.1.2 Drugs From Bugs 614.2.1.2.1 Microbes 614.2.1.2.2 Enzymes 614.2.1.3 Drugs From Aquatics 694.3 Chemical Industries 704.3.1 Biocatalysis 704.4 Bioprospecting in Agriculture 734.4.1 Biofertilizers and Biopesticides 734.4.2 Bioremediation 744.5 Bioprospecting in Beautification/Cosmetics 744.6 Bioprospecting in Detergent Industry 784.7 Bioprospecting in Textile Industry 804.8 Bioprospecting in Paper Industry 814.9 Bioprospecting in Food Industry 824.9.1 Bioprospecting in Brewing Industry 834.10 Diagnostic 834.10.1 Application of Enzymes for the Detection of Pyrogens in PharmaceuticalProducts 844.10.2 Bioprospecting in Biofuel Production 844.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 84References 855 Green and Smart Packaging of Food 93Gülden Gökşen, Derya Boyacı and Nick Tucker5.1 Introduction 935.2 Green Packaging in Food 955.3 Properties of Green Packaging Materials 955.4 Mechanical Properties of Green Packaging Materials 975.5 Barrier Properties of Green Packaging 985.6 Green Packaging Materials with Active Properties 995.7 Biodegradation Mechanisms of Green Packaging 1015.8 Main Green Food Packaging 1045.8.1 Poly(lactic Acid) (PLA) 1045.8.2 Polyhydroxyalkaonate (PHA) 1055.8.3 Starch-based Materials 1065.8.4 Cellulose-based Materials 1065.9 Life Cycle of Green Packaging Materials 1075.10 Smart Packaging in Food 1085.11 Indicators for Smart Packaging 1105.11.1 Time-Temperature Indicator (TTI) 1105.11.2 Freshness Indicators 1115.11.3 Packaging Integrity Indicators 1125.12 Sensor Applications for Smart Packaging 1135.13 Data Carriers for Smart Packaging 1195.14 Regulatory Aspects 1215.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 122References 1236 Nanosensors: Diagnostic Tools in the Food Industry 133Stephen Rathinaraj Benjamin, Eli José Miranda Ribeiro Junior, Vennilavan Thirumavalavan and Antony De Paula Barbosa6.1 Introduction 1336.2 Identification of Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins 1346.3 Pesticides and Carcinogenic Detection 1406.3.1 Nitrites-Carcinogenic Detection 1416.3.2 Mycotoxin Detection 1416.3.3 Food Packaging 1426.3.4 Food Freshness Detection 1436.4 Chemicals and Food Additives Detection 1446.4.1 Preservatives 1446.4.2 Dyes 1446.4.3 Sweeteners 1456.4.4 Antioxidants 1456.4.5 Food Allergens 1456.5 Nano-based Sensors for Smart Packaging 1466.5.1 Nanobarcodes 1476.5.2 e-NOSE and e-TONGUE 1476.5.3 Oxygen Sensors 1476.5.4 Humidity Sensors 1486.5.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sensor 1486.6 Challenges 1496.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 150References 1507 Harnessing Genetic Diversity for Addressing Wheat-based Time Bound Food Security Projections: A Selective Comprehensive Practical Overview 160Abdul Mujeeb-Kazi, Niaz Ali, Ian Dundas, Philip Larkin, Alexey Morghonov, Richard R-C Wang, Francis Ogbonnaya, Hanif Khan, Nasir Saeed, Shabir Wani, Mohammad Sohail Saddiq, Mohammad Jamil, Abdul Aziz Napar, Fatima Khalid, Mahjabeen Tariq, Rumana Keyani, Zeeshan Ali and Sanjaya Rajaram7.1 The Global Wheat Scenario 1627.2 Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding Over 9 Billion by 2050 1637.3 Conventional Wheat Improvement Strategies 1657.3.1 Breeding Methods 1657.3.2 Recombination Breeding 1667.3.3 Pedigree or Line Breeding 1677.3.4 Bulk Method 1687.3.5 Single Seed Descent (SSD) Method 1687.3.6 Backcross Breeding 1697.3.7 Modified Pedigree Bulk 1697.3.8 Selected Bulk 1707.3.9 Multiline Breeding 1707.3.10 Shuttle Breeding 1717.3.11 Doubled Haploid 1727.3.12 Mutation Breeding 1737.3.13 Hybrid Wheat 1757.3.14 The XYZ System 1767.4 Innovative Technologies for Accessing Novel Genetic Diversity 1777.5 Major Global Locations of Wheat Genetic Diversity 1797.6 Utilization of Genetic Diversity 1797.6.1 Wide Crosses: The Historical Build-up 1837.7 Distribution of Genetic Diversity: Gene Pools, Their Potential Impact and Research Integration for Practicality 1857.7.1 The Gene Pool Structure 1867.7.1.1 Primary Gene Pool Species 1867.7.1.2 The A Genome (Triticum Boeoticum, T. Monococcum, T. Urartu; 2n = 2x = 14, AA) 1877.7.1.3 The D Genome (Aegilops Tauschii = Goat Grass; 2n = 2x = 14, DD) 1877.7.1.4 Secondary Gene Pool Species 1887.7.1.5 Selected Secondary Gene Pool Species Utilization Example 1887.7.1.6 Tertiary Gene Pool Species 1887.7.1.7 The Gene Pool Potential Recap 1897.7.1.8 Conclusion: Transfer Prerequisites Across Gene Pools 1917.8 Underexplored Areas 1917.8.1 Land Races: Definitions, General Characteristics and Practicality Potential 1917.8.2 Wheat Landraces: An Additive Diversity Source 1937.8.3 Important Collections of Wheat Landraces 1947.9 Perennial Wheat 1987.9.1 The Concept of a More Sustainable Perennial Wheat-Like Cereal. Is It Feasible? 1987.9.1.1 What Benefit/s Would Come? 1987.9.1.2 Potential Pitfalls 1987.9.1.3 What Approaches Can Be Conceived? 1997.9.1.4 What Progress? 2007.9.1.5 What Lessons? 2017.9.1.6 Suggested Way Forward?7.9.2 Genetic Engineering for Wheat Improvement Focused on a Few Major Food Security Aspects 2047.9.2.1 Tissue Culture and Transformation of Wheat 2047.9.2.2 Production of Genetically-Modified Wheat 2057.9.2.3 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing in Wheat 2057.9.2.4 Potential Traits for Genetic Improvement of Wheat Through Biotechnology 2067.9.2.5 Yield Potential 2067.9.2.6 Climate Change 2077.9.2.7 Drought 2077.9.2.8 Salinity 2077.9.2.9 Heat 2087.10 Historical Non-Conventional Trends for Exploiting Wheat’s Genetic Resources 2087.10.1 Pre-1900 2087.10.2 1901–1920 2097.10.3 1921–1930 2107.10.4 1931–1950 2107.10.5 The Post-1950 Era: Preamble 2117.10.6 Homoeologous Pairing 2127.10.7 Isolation of Homoeologous Recombinants 2137.10.8 Intergeneric Hybridization Steps for Wheat/Alien Crossing 2147.10.8.1 Embryo Extraction and Handling 2177.10.8.2 Pre-Breeding Protocol 2187.10.8.3 Development of Genetic Stocks 2197.10.8.4 Establishing a Living Herbarium 2197.10.9 Interspecific Hybridization 2197.10.10 Additive Durum Wheat Improvement 2197.10.10.1 The Parental Choice 2217.10.10.2 Shortening the Breeding Cycle by Inducing Homozygosity in Desired Early Breeding Generations 2227.10.10.3 The Integration of Molecular Development Options for Efficiency and Precision 2237.11 Alleviating Wheat Productivity Constraints via New Genetic Variation 2247.11.1 Biotic Constraints 2247.11.2 Insect Resistance 2257.11.3 Root Diseases 2267.11.4 Abiotic Stresses 2267.11.5 Grain Yield 2277.11.6 Bio-Fortification 2287.11.7 Future Directions and Strategies 2287.12 Accruing Potental Practical Benefits 2307.13 Summary of the Practical Potential Benefits 2367.14 The Role of Genomics Information Including Molecular Markers in Wheat 2377.15 The Way Forward and Wrap-Up 2487.16 Concerns 2497.17 Conclusions 2507.18 Some Perceptions 252References 253Part II: Bioresource and Future Energy Security 2898 Waste-to-Energy: Potential of Biofuels Production from Sawdust as a Pathway to Sustainable Energy Development 291Oyebanji Joseph Adewumi, Oyedepo Sunday Olayinka, Kilanko Oluwaseun and Dunmade Israel Sunday8.1 Introduction 2918.2 Overview of Potential WTE Technologies for Biomass Wastes 2938.2.1 Thermo-Chemical Conversion Technologies 2938.2.1.1 Gasification 2948.2.1.2 Pyrolysis 2948.2.1.3 Liquefaction 2958.3 Biochemical Conversion Technologies 2958.4 Potential Feedstocks for Waste-to-Energy 2968.4.1 Agricultural Residues 2968.4.2 Animal Waste 2968.4.3 Forestry Residues 2968.4.4 Industrial Wastes 2968.4.5 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 2978.4.6 Black Liquor 2978.5 Waste-to-Energy and Sustainable Energy Development 2978.6 Challenges and Future Prospects of Waste-to-Energy Technologies 2988.7 Case Study: Application of Fast Pyrolysis for Conversion of Sawdust to Bio-Oil 2998.7.1 Samples Collection and Experimental Analysis 2998.7.2 Instrumentation and Experimental Set-up 2998.7.3 GCMS Analysis 2998.7.4 Chemical and Physical Composition of Biofuel Yield 3008.7.5 Characterization of Bio-Oil Yield from Sawdust Samples 3018.8 Economic and Environmental Benefits of Biofuel 3048.8.1 Economics Benefits 3048.8.2 Environmental Benefits of Biofuel 3048.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 304References 3059 Biogas Production and Processing from Various Organic Wastes in Anaerobic Digesters and Landfills 310Setareh Heidari, David A. Wood, Birendra K. Rajan and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail9.1 Introduction 3109.2 Urban Waste as a Raw Material for Biogas Production 3119.2.1 Independent-Source Organic Waste 3119.2.2 Sewage Sludge 3129.3 Biogas Feedstock Properties 3139.3.1 Suitability and Availability 3139.3.2 Digestibility 3189.3.3 Impurities with Digester-Disrupting Effects 3189.3.4 Feedstocks Acting as AD Biogas Boosters 3189.4 Biogas Production Technology Applied to Landfills 3199.4.1 Anaerobic Digester Pre-Treatments 3219.4.2 Digester Design and Process Optimization 3229.4.3 Hydrolysis Enhancements 3229.4.4 Bacterial Clean-up of AD Digester Effluent 3239.4.5 Additives to Enhance Methane Yield 3249.4.6 Biogas Upgrading Technologies 3249.4.6.1 Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies 3249.4.7 Hydrogen Sulfide and Ammonia Removal 3269.4.8 Siloxane Removal 3269.5 Conclusions 326References 32710 Extremophiles as Gold Mines for Bioprospecting 332Sheikh Tanveer Salam, Mukhtar Ahmad Malik and Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah10.1 Introduction 33210.2 Bioprospecting of Extremophiles 33310.3 Bioprospecting of Thermophiles 33810.4 Bioprospecting of Acidophiles 33810.5 Bioprospecting of Psychrophiles 33910.6 Bioprospecting of Halophiles 33910.7 Bioprospecting of Metallophiles 33910.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 340References 340Part III: Bioresource Technology: Solution to Sustainable Environment and Management Policies 34511 Algal-based Membrane Bioreactor for Wastewater Treatment 347Setareh Heidari, David A. Wood and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail11.1 Introduction 34711.2 Algal Treatment System: Requirements and Complications 34911.3 Elements of Microalgae Cultivation 35011.4 Membranes and Their Application in Water and Wastewater Treatments 35111.5 Algal Membrane Photobioreactors 35311.6 Factors Affecting the Performance of Membrane Photobioreactors 35611.6.1 Operating Factors 35611.6.1.1 Temperature 35611.6.2.2 Acidity-Alkalinity (Ph) 35611.6.3.3 Flux and Permeate Flux Through the Reactors 35611.6.4.4 Hydraulic and Solids Retention Time 35611.6.5.5 Lighting 35711.6.6.6 Aeration 35711.7 Biomass Properties Impacting MPBR Performance 35711.7.1 Microorganisms 35711.7.2 Wastewater Properties 35811.8 Challenges and Limitations 35811.9 Future Directions for Algal-based Membrane Bioreactors11.10 Conclusions 360References 36112 Engineering Plants for Metal Tolerance and Accumulation 373Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli, Flávia Cristina Policarpo Tonelli, Moline Severino Lemos, Helon Guimarães Cordeiro and Danilo Roberto Carvalho Ferreira12.1 Introduction 37312.2 Metals’ Bioremediation 37412.2.1 Metal Phytoremediation 37612.2.2 Non-Target Specific Engineered Plants to Metal Phytoremediation 37712.2.3 Target Specific Genomic Engineering Technique to Enhance Plants Metal Tolerance and Accumulation 38012.2.4 Important Methodologies to Engineer Plants to Metals Phytoremediation 38312.3 Omics as Tools to Elucidate Important Genes to Plants Engineering 38412.4 Conclusion 38712.5 Future Perspectives 387References 38813 Recent Advances in Enzymatic Membranes and Their Sustainable Applications Across Industry 399Setareh Heidari, David A. Wood and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail13.1 Introduction 39913.2 Enzymes 40113.3 Global Demand for Commercial Enzymes 40313.4 Membrane Technology 40513.5 Fouling-Type Immobilization Membranes 40713.6 Physical Procedures that Immobilize Enzyme in/on Membranes 40713.7 Covalent Bonds that Immobilize Enzymes in/on Membranes 40713.7.1 Amino Groups that Modify Membranes 40813.7.2 Carboxylic Groups that Modify Membranes 40813.7.3 Epoxy Groups that Modify Membranes 40813.7.4 Azido Groups that Modify Membranes 40913.8 Cross-linkage Procedures 40913.9 Applications of Enzymatic Membrane Reactors 40913.9.1 Treatment of Milk or Cheese Whey 40913.9.2 Treatments of Animal, Plant, and Waste Oils and Fats 41013.9.3 Pharmaceutical Production Employing Biocatalytic Membrane Reactors 41013.9.4 Biocatalytic-Membrane Reactors for Biomedical Applications 41113.9.5 Biocatalytic-Membrane Reactors for Agricultural Applications 41113.9.6 Biocatalytic-Membrane Reactors for Waste-Water Treatment 41113.10 Limitations, Challenges and Solution for EMR Applications 41213.11 Conclusions 414References 41514 Use and Manufacture of Biopesticides and Biofertilizers in Latin America 424Luis Jesús Castillo-Pérez, Juan José Maldonado Miranda and Candy Carranza-Álvarez14.1 Introduction 42414.2 Current Problems of Pesticides and Fertilizers in Latin America 42514.3 Manufacture and Use of Biopesticides and Biofertilizers in Latin America 42614.4 Manufacture of A Natural Repellent: A Case Study 43014.5 Biotechnological Interventions in Biopesticide Synthesis 43314.6 Biofertilizers Relevance and Plant Tolerance to Abiotic/Biotic Stress 43314.7 Conclusions 436References 43615 Carbon Sequestration Alternatives for Mitigating the Accumulation of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere 443Erfan Sadatshojaei, Setareh Heidari, Zahra Edraki, David A. Wood and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail15.1 Introduction 44315.2 Impact of Greenhouse Gases 44415.2.1 The Natural Greenhouse Impacts 44415.2.2 Anthropogenic Greenhouse Impacts 44515.3 Soil’s Role in the Sequestration of Carbon 44615.3.1 Organic Carbon Sequestration 44615.3.2 Inorganic Carbon Sequestration in Soils 44915.4 Terrestrial Carbon Sequestration 45015.4.1 Global Forest Management 45015.4.1.1 Improving Agricultural Practices 45215.4.1.2 Improving Biofuel Production Processes 45315.5 Carbon Sequestration into Sub-Surface Geological Reservoirs 45415.6 Oceanic Carbon Sequestration 45615.7 Conclusions 457References 45816 Nanotechnology for Future Sustainable Plant Production Under Changing Environmental Conditions 466Ayesha Tahir, Jun Kang, Jaffer Ali, Ameer Bibi and Shabbar Abbas16.1 Introduction 46616.2 Nanotechnology and Synthesis of Nanomaterials 46716.2.1 Chemical Methods 46716.2.2 Physical Methods 46816.2.3 Biological Methods (Green Synthesis) 46816.2.3.1 Plant Extract-based Synthesis of Nanomaterials 46816.2.3.2 Microorganism-based Synthesis of Nanomaterials 46916.3 Potential Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture for Climate Resilient Crops 47016.3.1 Nanotechnology and Efficient Use of Input Resources 47016.3.1.1 Water Use Efficiency Enhancement 47016.3.1.2 Light Use Efficiency Enhancement 47116.3.1.3 Nutrient Use Efficiency Enhancement 47116.3.2 Nanomaterials and Plant Growth Enhancement 47216.3.2.1 Germination and Vigor Enhancement 47216.3.3 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Biotic Stresses 47316.3.3.1 Nano-Pesticides 47316.3.3.2 Nano-Fungicides 47316.3.4 Nanomaterials to Mitigate Abiotic Stresses 47416.3.4.1 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Drought Stress 47416.3.4.2 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Metal Stress 47416.3.4.3 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Salinity Stress 47616.3.4.4 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Flooding Stress 47716.3.4.5 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Heat Stress 47716.3.4.6 Nanoparticles to Mitigate Cold Stress 47716.4 Advances in Nanotechnology 47816.4.1 Nanotechnology in Tissue Culture 47816.4.2 NPs in Genome Editing 47916.4.3 Nanosensors/Smart Plant Sensors 48016.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 481References 48217 Nanoscience: A Boon for Reviving Agriculture 493Afrozah Hassan, Shabana Gulzar, Hanan Javid and Irshad Ahmad Nawchoo17.1 Introduction 49317.2 Agriculture: A Growing Need 49417.2.1 Advanced Agriculture System Through Nanoscience 49417.2.2 Nanofertilizers for Agriculture 49517.3 Nano Herbicides and Agriculture 49617.4 Nanotechnology Leading to Sustainable Agriculture 49717.5 Conclusion 499References 49918 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management 504Ghulam Mustafa18.1 Introduction 50418.2 Bioeconomy 50418.3 Profitability Analysis of Bioresource-based Business 50518.3.1 Short Rotation Cultivation (SRC) 50618.3.2 Ecotourism 50718.3.3 District Heating 50718.3.4 Aquatic Biorefinery 50818.4 Food Waste to Bioresource Businesses and Their Efficacies 50918.4.1 Biofertilizer and Biogas Production 50918.4.2 Biomethane 50918.4.3 Bioethanol Fermentation 51018.5 Bioresources for Risk Prevention and Poverty Alleviation 51218.6 Conclusion 513References 513Index 517