Biopolymers for Water Purification

Sabu Thomas, PhD, Chairman, Trivandrum Engineering Science & Technology Research Park (TrEST Research Park), Director, School of Energy Materials, Director, School of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Director, International and Inter-University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Former Vice Chancellor Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India. Georgi J. Vadakkekara, PhD, is Senior Researcher at Bharathiar University Coimbatore, Chennai, India. Hanna J. Maria, PhD, Senior Research Associate, Director, School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala.

• Foreword xvPreface xvii1 A Bibliometric Analysis on the Application of Biopolymers in Water Purification 1Fabiula D.B. de Sousa and Júlia R. Gouveia1.1 Introduction 11.2 Methodology 21.3 Results 21.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis 21.3.1.1 Sources 21.3.1.2 Authors, Affiliations, and Countries 31.3.1.3 Publications 61.3.1.4 Keywords 71.4 Conclusions 13References 142 Extraction of Biopolymers from Nature and Their Characterization 25Ayse Kalemtas, Gulsum Aydin, Aslıhan Kurt-Kızıldoğan, and Gulsum Topates2.1 Introduction 252.2 Production of Animal-Derived Biopolymers 272.2.1 Polysaccharides 302.2.1.1 Hyaluronan (Hyaluronic Acid) 302.2.1.2 Chitin and Chitosan 312.2.1.3 Heparin 322.2.1.4 Glycogen 322.2.2 Proteins 332.2.2.1 Collagen 332.2.2.2 Gelatin 342.2.2.3 Keratin 352.2.3 Oils 362.2.3.1 Beeswax 362.3 Production of Bacteria-Derived Biopolymers 372.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 372.3.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose 422.3.3 Microbial Exopolysaccharides 452.4 Production of Plant-Derived Biopolymers 462.4.1 Cellulose 462.4.2 Starch 492.4.3 Lignin 502.4.4 Natural Rubber 522.5 Production of Algae-Derived Biopolymers 522.5.1 Alginate 542.5.2 Carrageenan 542.6 Characterization of Biopolymers 552.6.1 Optical Microscopy 562.6.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 562.6.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 572.6.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 582.6.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 602.6.6 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 622.6.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 632.6.8 Raman Spectroscopy 642.6.9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 652.6.10 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 672.6.11 X-ray Diffraction 682.6.12 CHNS-O Analysis 702.6.13 Mechanical Properties 702.7 Conclusion 71References 723 Synthesis of Biopolymers and Characterization 91Dilipkumar Pal and Supriyo Saha3.1 Introduction 913.2 Biopolymer: Source and Types 933.3 Biopolymers Used in the Treatment of Water Pollution: Synthesis and Characterization 943.3.1 Chitosan in the Treatment of Water Pollution 943.3.2 Selenide–Chitosan Microsphere in the Treatment of Water Pollution 943.3.3 Magnetic Phosphorylated Chitosan Composite in the Removal of Cobalt from Water 953.3.4 Magnetic Chitosan Bead Used in the Removal of Arsenic from Water 953.3.5 Chitosan–Clay Composite in the Treatment of Water Pollution 963.3.6 Chitosan Bead in the Removal of Molybdate Ion from Contaminated Ground Water 973.3.7 Chitosan Chloride–Graphene Oxide Composite Modified Quartz for the Treatment of Polluted Water 973.3.8 Fungal Chitosan in the Purification of Polluted Water 983.3.9 Gum Arabic in the Treatment of Organic Waste from Polluted Water 983.3.10 Gelatin–Beta Cyclodextrin Adsorbent in the Treatment of Wastewater 1003.3.11 Gelatin Infused with Chitosan/Polyethyleneimine for the Treatment of Water Pollution 1003.3.12 Kappa Carrageenan–Graphene Oxide Composite in the Treatment of Water Pollution 1013.3.13 Lignin Polymeric Particles in the Removal of Virus from Water 1023.3.14 Polyelectrolyte Layered Cellulose in the Removal of Bacteria from Water 1023.3.15 Cellulose–Polyaniline–Silver Nanocomposite Fused Fiber in the Treatment of Water Pollution 1033.3.16 Polycaprolactone–Nanocellulose Fiber in the Removal of Heavy Metals from Polluted Water 1033.3.17 Cellulose–Metallothionein Biosorbent in the Treatment of Polluted Water 1043.3.18 Magnetic–Carboxylated Cellulose/Starch Composite in the Treatment of Polluted Water 1043.4 Conclusion and Future Scope 105References 1064 Importance of Water and Water Quality 109Gaurav Awasthi, Manu Sharma, and Pawan Kumar4.1 Introduction 1094.1.1 Overview 1094.1.2 Problems Related to Water 1094.1.3 Solutions to Water Problem 1124.2 Quality Measure for Water 1134.2.1 Physical Contaminants 1144.2.2 Biological Contaminants 1144.2.3 Chemical Contaminants 1154.2.3.1 Inorganic Contaminants 1154.2.3.2 Organic Contaminants 1164.2.3.3 Miscellaneous Contaminants 1184.3 Role of Materials to Maintain Water Quality 1184.3.1 Role of Biopolymers 1194.4 Challenges and Future Perspective 1234.5 Conclusion 125References 1255 Microcellulose Membranes for Water Purification 137Turup P. Mohan and Krishnan Kanny5.1 Introduction 1375.2 Water Purification 1385.3 Filtration 1395.4 Nanofiltration Process 1395.5 Ultrafiltration Process 1405.6 Reverse Osmosis 1415.7 Reverse Osmosis versus Nanofiltration Membrane Process 1425.8 Distillation 1425.9 Chlorination 1435.10 Polymer 1445.11 Cellulose 1455.12 Tissue Engineering 1475.13 Barrier Properties 1485.14 Membrane Technology 1485.15 Membrane Filtration 1495.16 Membrane Processing 1505.17 Conclusions 151Acknowledgment 152References 1526 Nanocellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 157Tian Mai, Pei-Lin Wang, Lei Chen, and Ming-Guo Ma6.1 Introduction 1576.2 Nanocellulose 1586.3 Cellulose Nanofibrils and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 1626.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 1666.5 Bacterial Cellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 1696.6 Conclusions and Prospects 173Acknowledgments 174References 1757 Lignin Polymers for Water Treatment 181Júlia R. Gouveia and Fabiula D.B. de Sousa7.1 Introduction 1817.1.1 Lignin Structure 1827.1.2 Lignin-Based Polymers for Water Treatment 1837.1.2.1 Cationic Lignin-Based Polymers 1837.1.2.2 Anionic Lignin-Based Polymers 1857.1.2.3 Lignin-Based Polymers with Dual Action 1897.1.2.4 Lignin-Based Thermoplastics for Water Treatment 1917.1.3 Lignin-Based Nanoparticles for Water Treatment 1957.1.4 Lignin-Based Membranes for Water Treatment 1997.1.5 Lignin-Based Hydrogels for Water Treatment 2027.2 Conclusions 204List of Abbreviations 205References 2068 Use of Cellulosic Material and Natural Fibers in Wastewater Treatment 211Gabriela Y. Romero-Zúñiga, Roberto Yáñez-Macías, Israel Sifuentes-Nieves, Zureima García-Hernández, Yucundo Mendoza-Tolentino, Pablo González-Morones, and Ernesto Hernández-Hernández8.1 Introduction 2118.2 Cellulosic Materials (CMs) and Natural Fibers (NFs) 2128.2.1 Characterization 2138.2.1.1 Chemical Composition 2148.2.1.2 Morphology and Crystalline Structure 2148.2.1.3 Physical-Mechanical Properties 2188.2.1.4 Thermal Properties 2208.3 Use of MCs and NFs in Water Purification 2228.3.1 Heavy Metals Purification 2248.3.2 Dyes/Colorants 2258.3.3 Organic/Inorganic Material 2278.3.4 Oils/Hydrocarbons 2288.4 Mechanisms of Contaminant Absorption 2318.4.1 Absorption of Heavy Metals and Industrial Dyes 2328.4.2 Organic and Inorganic Compounds 2338.4.3 Oils and Hydrocarbons 2348.5 Adaptation and Modification of CMs and NFs for Application in Water Purification 2358.5.1 Physical and Chemical Modifications 2358.5.1.1 Esterification 2378.5.1.2 Oxidation 2378.5.1.3 Halogenation 2378.5.1.4 Etherification 2388.5.1.5 Graft Copolymerization 2388.5.2 Morphological Characteristics 2408.5.3 Devices Manufactured with CMs and NFs for Their Application in Water Purification 2418.5.4 Characterization and Evolution of the Performance of CMs and NFs as Water Purifiers 2428.6 Selection of the Stage of Water Treatment at Which the CMs and NFs Will Be Applied 2438.7 Conclusion 244References 2459 Starch Polymers: Their Blends, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification 275Alana G. de Souza, Rafaela R. Ferreira, Danrlei F. Alves, Derval S. Rosa, and Vania Z. Pinto9.1 Introduction 2759.2 Water Contamination 2769.3 Water Treatment 2789.4 Starch in Water Treatments 2809.4.1 Contaminants Flocculation Using Starch 2829.4.2 Starch Membranes 2839.4.3 Starch Sorbents 2859.4.4 Starch Nanoparticles and Nanocrystals 2879.4.5 Hydrogels 2889.4.6 Aerogels 2909.5 Future Perspectives 291References 29210 Chitosan Polymers: Their Blends, IPNs, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification 301Svetlana Jovanovic and Dejan Kepic10.1 Chitosan – Structure and Properties 30110.2 Chitosan with Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Water Purification 30410.2.1 Chitosan-CNT Composites for Water Purification 30610.2.2 Chitosan-G (GO) Composites for Water Purification 31210.3 Chitosan Blends with Polymers for Water Purification 31510.4 Chitosan IPN and Chitosan Gel for Water Purification 31810.5 Chitosan Composite Membranes for Water Purification 32210.6 Conclusion 324Acknowledgments 324References 32511 The Production of Chitin, Nanochitin Polymers, and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 341Jonas J. Perez Bravo, Laura D. Pilato, Gabriel I. Tovar, Federico J. Wolman, and Guillermo J. Copello11.1 Introduction 34111.2 Chitin Material Development 34311.2.1 Chitin Nanoparticle and Nanostructured Composite Production 34311.2.2 Processing of Chitin Nano-objects 34411.2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 34411.2.2.2 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation 34511.2.2.3 Ionic Liquid 34511.2.2.4 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) 34611.2.2.5 High Pressure 34611.2.2.6 Solvent Casting 34711.2.3 Processing of Chitin Nanostructured Materials 34711.2.3.1 Electrospinning 34811.2.3.2 Ionic Liquid 34811.2.3.3 CaCl 2 /Methanol 34911.2.3.4 N,N-Dimethylacetamide(DMAc)/LiCl 34911.2.3.5 NaOH/Urea 35011.2.3.6 Solvent Casting 35011.3 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Adsorption Processes 35011.4 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Degradation Processes 35811.5 Conclusions 361References 36212 Polysaccharide-Based Water Purifying Materials 371Aldrin P. Bonto, Jose P. Bantang, Melvir Sucaldito, Michaela O.S. Lobregas, Francis M. dela Rosa, Feiyang Wang, and Cédric Delattre12.1 Introduction 37112.2 Starch, Its Functional Derivatives, and Composites for Water Purification Process 37212.2.1 Chemically Modified Starch by Regiochemical Functionalization and Grafting for Water Treatment and Purification 37212.2.2 Modified Starch Composites for Water Purification 37712.2.3 Alternative Approaches in Improving Starch for Water Treatment 37812.3 Chitosan 37912.3.1 Chemical Modification of Chitosan 38012.3.2 Chitosan-Based Composites for Water Purification 38312.4 Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharides 38812.4.1 Chemical Modification of Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharides 39112.4.2 Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharide Composites 39412.5 Pectin and Gum Polysaccharides 39512.5.1 Chemically Modified Pectin and Gum Polysaccharides 39712.5.2 Pectin/Gum Polysaccharide Gum Composites 40112.6 Conclusions and Future Research Outlooks 403List of Abbreviations 403References 40413 Biocatalytic Membrane for Seawater Purification 421Wenxiang Zhang, Mingming Hu, Shaoqiang Nie, and Tugui Yuan13.1 Introduction 42113.2 Types and Properties of Enzymes 42313.2.1 Laccase 42313.2.2 Tyrosinase 42313.2.3 Catalase 42413.3 Preparation Method of Biocatalytic Membrane 42413.3.1 Entrapment Method 42413.3.2 Cross-linking Method 42513.3.3 Covalent Bonding 42513.3.4 Physical Adsorption Method 42613.4 Application of Biocatalytic Membrane 42613.4.1 Agricultural Food 42613.4.2 The Medicine Application 42713.4.3 Seawater Treatment 42713.5 Challenges and Applications of Biocatalytic Membrane 42913.5.1 Application of Dopamine in Membrane Modification and Enzyme Immobilization 42913.5.1.1 Dopamine Properties 42913.5.2 Application of Dopamine in Membrane Modification 43013.5.2.1 Membrane Hydrophilicity Enhancement 43113.5.2.2 The Membrane Antifouling Ability Improvement 43113.5.3 Application of Dopamine in Enzyme Immobilization 43113.5.3.1 Dopamine Used in Immobilization of Laccase 43213.5.4 Application of Dopamine for Alcohol Dehydrogenase Immobilization 43213.5.5 Opportunities and Challenges 43413.6 Conclusions 434Acknowledgments 434References 43414 Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles for Water Purification 439Hebatullah H. Farghal, Marianne Nebsen, Amani Mostafa, and Mayyada M.H. El-Sayed14.1 Introduction 43914.2 Synthesis of the Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles 44014.2.1 Biopolymer-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 44014.2.2 Biopolymer-Coated Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 44214.3 Characterization of Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles 44314.3.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis 44314.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 44414.4 Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles in Water Treatment 44414.4.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 44414.4.2 Removal of Dyes 44714.4.3 Removal of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) 44914.5 Conclusion 457Abbreviations 458References 45915 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels and Removing Metals in Contaminated Water 465Jéssica S. Rodrigues, André M. Senna, and Vagner R. Botaro15.1 Introduction 46515.2 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels 46615.2.1 N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) System 46615.2.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) System 46715.2.3 Alkali/Urea or Thiourea Aqueous Systems 46715.2.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC) Hydrogels 46715.3 Hydrogels Derived from Cellulose Acetate as a Source of Raw Material 46915.4 The Diversity of Applications 47415.4.1 Removing Metals and Radioactive Compounds from Contaminated Water 47715.4.2 Removal of Organic Contaminants, Oils, and Dyes from Contaminated Water 47815.4.3 New Applications Involving Hydrogels in Evaporators and Hydrogen Production 48015.5 Final Consideration 481References 482Index 489