Biological Sludge Minimization and Biomaterials/Bioenergy Recovery Technologies

ETIENNE PAUL, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at the National Institute of Applied Sciences. He has more than fifteen years of experience in the field of biological treatment of water, wastewater, and waste.YU LIU, PhD, is an associate professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Nanyang Technological University. He has authored or edited six books, four book chapters, and over ninety journal articles.

• Preface xviiContributors xxi1 Fundamentals of Biological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 1Jianlong Wang1.1 Introduction, 11.2 Overview of Biological Wastewater Treatment, 21.2.1 The Objective of Biological Wastewater Treatment, 21.2.2 Roles of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment, 31.2.3 Types of Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes, 41.3 Classification of Microorganisms, 41.3.1 By the Sources of Carbon and Energy, 41.3.2 By Temperature Range, 61.3.3 Microorganism Types in Biological Wastewater Treatment, 71.4 Some Important Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment, 81.4.1 Bacteria, 81.4.2 Fungi, 121.4.3 Algae, 151.4.4 Protozoans, 161.4.5 Rotifers and Crustaceans, 181.4.6 Viruses, 201.5 Measurement of Microbial Biomass, 211.5.1 Total Number of Microbial Cells, 211.5.2 Measurement of Viable Microbes on Solid Growth Media, 221.5.3 Measurement of Active Cells in Environmental Samples, 231.5.4 Determination of Cellular Biochemical Compounds, 241.5.5 Evaluation of Microbial Biodiversity by Molecular Techniques, 241.6 Microbial Nutrition, 241.6.1 Microbial Chemical Composition, 251.6.2 Macronutrients, 271.6.3 Micronutrients, 281.6.4 Growth Factor, 291.6.5 Microbial Empirical Formula, 311.7 Microbial Metabolism, 311.7.1 Catabolic Metabolic Pathways, 321.7.2 Anabolic Metabolic Pathway, 381.7.3 Biomass Synthesis Yields, 391.7.4 Coupling Energy-Synthesis Metabolism, 411.8 Functions of Biological Wastewater Treatment, 421.8.1 Aerobic Biological Oxidation, 421.8.2 Biological Nutrients Removal, 451.8.3 Anaerobic Biological Oxidation, 501.8.4 Biological Removal of Toxic Organic Compounds and Heavy Metals, 551.8.5 Removal of Pathogens and Parasites, 581.9 Activated Sludge Process, 591.9.1 Basic Process, 601.9.2 Microbiology of Activated Sludge, 611.9.3 Biochemistry of Activated Sludge, 661.9.4 Main Problems in the Activated Sludge Process, 671.10 Suspended- and Attached-Growth Processes, 691.10.1 Suspended-Growth Processes, 691.10.2 Attached-Growth Processes, 701.10.3 Hybrid Systems, 711.10.4 Comparison Between Suspended- and Attached-Growth Systems, 721.11 Sludge Production, Treatment and Disposal, 741.11.1 Sludge Production, 741.11.2 Sludge Treatment Processes, 761.11.3 Sludge Disposal and Application, 78References, 792 Sludge Production: Quantification and Prediction for Urban Treatment Plants and Assessment of Strategies for Sludge Reduction 81Mathieu Spe´randio, Etienne Paul, Yolaine Bessie`re, and Yu Liu2.1 Introduction, 812.2 Sludge Fractionation and Origin, 822.2.1 Sludge Composition, 822.2.2 Wastewater Characteristics, 832.3 Quantification of Excess Sludge Production, 882.3.1 Primary Treatment, 882.3.2 Activated Sludge Process, 902.3.3 Phosphorus Removal (Biological and Physicochemical), 972.4 Practical Evaluation of Sludge Production, 992.4.1 Sludge Production Yield Variability with Domestic Wastewater, 992.4.2 Influence of Sludge Age: Experimental Data Versus Models, 1002.4.3 ISS Entrapment in the Sludge, 1032.4.4 Example of Sludge Production for a Different Case Study, 1042.5 Strategies for Excess Sludge Reduction, 1062.5.1 Classification of Strategies, 1062.5.2 Increasing the Sludge Age, 1072.5.3 Model-Based Evaluation of Advanced ESR Strategies, 1092.6 Conclusions, 1112.7 Nomenclature, 112References, 1143 Characterization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge 117Etienne Paul, Xavier Lefebvre, Mathieu Sperandio, Dominique Lefebvre, and Yu Liu3.1 Introduction, 1173.2 Definitions, 1193.3 Wastewater and Sludge Composition and Fractionation, 1203.3.1 Wastewater COD Fractions, 1213.3.2 WAS COD Fractions, 1223.3.3 ADS Organic Fractions, 1223.4 Physical Fractionation, 1233.4.1 Physical State of Wastewater Organic Matter, 1233.4.2 Methods for Physical Fractionation of Wastewater Components, 1233.5 Biodegradation Assays for Wastewater and Sludge Characterization, 1243.5.1 Background, 1243.5.2 Methods Based on Substrate Depletion, 1253.5.3 Methods Based on Respirometry, 1253.5.4 Anaerobic Biodegradation Assays, 1283.6 Application to Wastewater COD Fractionation, 1313.6.1 Global Picture of Fractionation Methods and Wastewater COD Fractions, 1313.6.2 Application of Physical Separation for Characterization of Wastewater COD Fractions, 1323.6.3 Biodegradable COD Fraction, 1333.6.4 Relation Between Physical and Biological Properties of Organic Fractions, 1363.6.5 Unbiodegradable Particulate COD Fractions, 1373.7 Assessment of the Characteristics of Sludge and Disintegrated Sludge, 1433.7.1 Physical Fractionation of COD Released from Sludge Disintegration Treatment, 1433.7.2 Biological Fractionation of COD Released from Sludge Disintegration Treatment, 1453.7.3 Biodegradability of WAS in Anaerobic Digestion, 1453.7.4 Unbiodegradable COD in Anaerobic Digestion, 1463.8 Nomenclature, 147References, 1494 Oxic-Settling-Anaerobic Process for Enhanced Microbial Decay 155Qingliang Zhao and Jianfang Wang4.1 Introduction, 1554.2 Description of the Oxic-Settling-Anaerobic Process, 1564.2.1 Oxic-Settling-Anaerobic Process, 1564.2.2 Characteristics of the OSA Process, 1574.3 Effects of an Anaerobic Sludge Tank on the Performance of an OSA System, 1584.3.1 Fate of Sludge Anaerobic Exposure in an OSA System, 1584.3.2 Effect of Sludge Anaerobic Exposure on Biomass Activity, 1604.4 Sludge Production in an OSA System, 1614.5 Performance of an OSA System, 1624.5.1 Organic and Nutrient Removal, 1624.5.2 Sludge Settleability, 1634.6 Important Influence Factors, 1644.6.1 Influence of the ORP on Sludge Production, 1644.6.2 Influence of the ORP on Performance of an OSA System, 1644.6.3 Influence of SAET on Sludge Production, 1664.6.4 Influence of SAET on the Performance of an OSA System, 1664.7 Possible Sludge Reduction in the OSA Process, 1664.7.1 Slow Growers, 1674.7.2 Energy Uncoupling Metabolism, 1674.7.3 Sludge Endogenous Decay, 1694.8 Microbial Community in an OSA System, 1714.8.1 Staining Analysis, 1724.8.2 FISH Analysis, 1734.9 Cost and Energy Evaluation, 1744.10 Evaluation of the OSA Process, 1754.11 Process Development, 1764.11.1 Sludge Decay Combined with Other Sludge Reduction Mechanisms, 1764.11.2 Improved Efficiency in Sludge Anaerobic Digestion, 1774.11.3 Combined Minimization of Excess Sludge with Nutrient Removal, 178References, 1795 Energy Uncoupling for Sludge Minimization: Pros and Cons 183Bo Jiang, Yu Liu, and Etienne Paul5.1 Introduction, 1835.2 Overview of Adenosine Triphosphate Synthesis, 1845.2.1 Electron Transport System, 1845.2.2 Mechanisms of Oxidative Phosphorylation, 1855.3 Control of ATP Synthesis, 1875.3.1 Diversion of PMF from ATP Synthesis to Other Physiological Activities, 1875.3.2 Inhibition of Oxidative Phosphorylation, 1875.3.3 Uncoupling of Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation, 1885.4 Energy Uncoupling for Sludge Reduction, 1895.4.1 Chemical Uncouplers Used for Sludge Reduction, 1895.4.2 Uncoupling Activity, 1985.5 Modeling of Uncoupling Effect on Sludge Production, 2005.6 Sideeffects of Chemical Uncouplers, 2025.7 Full-Scale Application, 204References, 2046 Reduction of Excess Sludge Production Using Ozonation or Chlorination: Performance and Mechanisms of Action 209Etienne Paul, Qi-Shan Liu, and Yu Liu6.1 Introduction, 2096.2 Significant Operational Results for ESP Reduction with Ozone, 2106.2.1 Options for Combining Ozonation and Biological Treatment, 2106.2.2 ESP Reduction Performance, 2126.2.3 Assessing Ozone Efficiency for Mineral ESP Reduction, 2156.3 Side Effects of Sludge Ozonation, 2166.3.1 Outlet SS and COD, 2166.3.2 N Removal, 2186.4 Cost Assessment, 2216.5 Effect of Ozone on Sludge, 2226.5.1 Synergy Between Ozonation and Biological Treatment, 2226.5.2 Some Fundamentals of Ozone Transfer, 2226.5.3 Sludge Composition, 2246.5.4 Effect of Ozone on Activated Sludge: Batch Tests, 2266.5.5 Effect of Ozone on Biomass Activity, 2286.5.6 Competition for Ozone in Mixed Liquor, 2316.6 Modeling Ozonation Effect, 2336.7 Remarks on Sludge Ozonation, 2366.8 Chlorination in Water and Wastewater Treatment, 2366.8.1 Introduction, 2366.8.2 Chlorination-Assisted Biological Process for Sludge Reduction, 2376.8.3 Effect of Chlorine Dosage on Sludge Reduction, 2396.8.4 Chlorine Requirement, 2406.9 Nomenclature, 242References, 2447 High-Dissolved-Oxygen Biological Process for Sludge Reduction 249Zhi-Wu Wang7.1 Introduction, 2497.2 Mechanism of High-Dissolved-Oxygen Reduced Sludge Production, 2517.2.1 High-Dissolved-Oxygen Decreased Specific Loading Rate, 2517.2.2 High-Dissolved-Oxygen Uncoupled Microbial Metabolism Pathway, 2527.2.3 High-Dissolved-Oxygen Shifted Microbial Population, 2547.3 Limits of High-Dissolved-Oxygen Process for Reduced Sludge Production, 255References, 2568 Minimizing Excess Sludge Production Through Membrane Bioreactors and Integrated Processes 261Philip Chuen-Yung Wong8.1 Introduction, 2618.2 Mass Balances, 2628.3 Integrated Processes Based on Lysis-Cryptic Growth, 2668.3.1 Mass Balance Incorporating Sludge Disintegration and Solubilization, 2688.3.2 Thermal and Thermal-Alkaline Treatment, 2748.3.3 Ozonation, 2768.3.4 Sonication, 2798.4 Predation, 2838.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks, 285References, 2869 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology for Sustainable Treatment of Organic Wastes and Electrical Energy Recovery 291Shi-Jie You, Nan-Qi Ren, and Qing-Liang Zhao9.1 Introduction, 2919.2 Fundamentals, Evaluation, and Design of MFCs, 2939.2.1 Principles, 2939.2.2 Performance Evaluation, 2939.2.3 MFC Configurations, 2949.3 Performance of Anodes, 2959.3.1 Electrode Materials, 2959.3.2 Microbial Electron Transfer, 2969.3.3 Electron Donors, 2989.4 Cathode Performances, 2999.4.1 Electron Acceptors, 3009.4.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction, 3029.4.3 Air-Cathode Structure and Function, 3039.4.4 Electrocatalyst, 3049.5 Separator, 3069.6 pH Gradient and Buffer, 3079.7 Applications of MFC-Based Technology, 3099.7.1 Biosensors, 3099.7.2 Hydrogen Production, 3109.7.3 Desalination, 3109.7.4 Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis, 3129.7.5 Environmental Remediation, 3129.8 Conclusions and Remarks, 314References, 31510 Anaerobic Digestion of Sewage Sludge 319Kuan-Yeow Show, Duu-Jong Lee, and Joo-Hwa Tay10.1 Introduction, 31910.2 Principles of Anaerobic Digestion, 32010.2.1 Hydrolysis and Acidogenesis, 32110.2.2 Methane Formation, 32310.3 Environmental Requirements and Control, 32410.3.1 pH, 32410.3.2 Alkalinity, 32510.3.3 Temperature, 32610.3.4 Nutrients, 32610.3.5 Toxicity, 32710.4 Design Considerations for Anaerobic Sludge Digestion, 32910.4.1 Hydraulic Detention Time, 32910.4.2 Solids Loading, 33010.4.3 Temperature, 33110.4.4 Mixing, 33110.5 Component Design of Anaerobic Digester Systems, 33110.5.1 Tank Configurations, 33110.5.2 Temperature Control, 33310.5.3 Sludge Heating, 33310.5.4 Auxiliary Mixing, 33410.6 Reactor Configurations, 33610.6.1 Conventional Anaerobic Digesters, 33610.6.2 Anaerobic Contact Processes, 33810.6.3 Other Types of Configurations, 34010.7 Advantages and Limitations of Anaerobic Sludge Digestion, 34310.8 Summary and New Horizons, 344References, 34511 Mechanical Pretreatment-Assisted Biological Processes 349He´le`ne Carre`re, Damien J. Batstone, and Etienne Paul11.1 Introduction, 34911.2 Mechanisms of Mechanical Pretreatment, 35011.2.1 From Sludge Disintegration to Cell Lysis and Chemical Transformation, 35011.2.2 Specific Energy, 35011.2.3 Sonication, 35111.2.4 Grinding, 35311.2.5 Shear-Based Methods: High-Pressure and Collision Plate Homogenization, 35311.2.6 Lysis Centrifuge, 35311.3 Impacts of Treatment: Rate vs. Extent of Degradability, 35311.3.1 Grinding, 35411.3.2 Ultrasonication, 35411.4 Equipment for Mechanical Pretreatment, 35411.4.1 Sonication, 35511.4.2 Grinding, 35711.4.3 Shear-Based Methods: High-Pressure and Collision Plate Homogenization, 35811.4.4 Lysis Centrifuge, 35911.5 Side Effects, 35911.6 Mechanical Treatment Combined with Activated Sludge, 36011.7 Mechanical Treatment Combined with Anaerobic Digestion, 36111.7.1 Performances, 36111.7.2 Dewaterability, 36311.7.3 Full-Scale Performance and Market Penetration, 36411.7.4 Energy Balance, 36511.7.5 Nutrient Release and Recovery/Removal, 36611.8 Conclusion, 367References, 36812 Thermal Methods to Enhance Biological Treatment Processes 373Etienne Paul, He´le`ne Carre`re, and Damien J. Batstone12.1 Introduction, 37312.2 Mechanisms, 37412.2.1 Effects of Heating on Cells, 37412.2.2 Effect of Heating on Sludge, 37612.2.3 Mechanisms of Thermal Pretreatment, 38812.3 Devices for Thermal Treatment, 38812.3.1 Low-Temperature Pretreatment, 38912.3.2 High-Temperature Pretreatment, 39012.4 Applications of Thermal Treatment, 39012.4.1 Thermal Treatment Combined with Activated Sludge, 39012.4.2 Thermal Pretreatment to Anaerobic Digestion, 39412.5 Conclusions, 398References, 39913 Combustion, Pyrolysis, and Gasification of Sewage Sludge for Energy Recovery 405Yong-Qiang Liu, Joo-Hwa Tay, and Yu Liu13.1 Introduction, 40513.2 Characteristics and Dewatering of Sewage Sludge, 40613.3 Energy Recovery from Sludge, 40813.3.1 Incineration, 40813.3.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification, 41613.3.3 Wet Oxidation, 41913.3.4 Thermal Plasma Pyrolysis and Gasification, 420References, 42114 Aerobic Granular Sludge Technology for Wastewater Treatment 429Bing-Jie Ni and Han-Qing Yu14.1 Introduction, 42914.2 Technological Starting Points: Cultivating Aerobic Granules, 43114.2.1 Substrate Composition, 43114.2.2 Organic Loading Rate, 43314.2.3 Seed Sludge, 43314.2.4 Reactor Configuration, 43314.2.5 Operational Parameters, 43414.3 Mechanisms of the Aerobic Granulation Process, 43614.3.1 Granulation Steps, 43614.3.2 Selective Pressure, 43714.4 Characterization of Aerobic Granular Sludge, 43814.4.1 Biomass Yield and Sludge Reduction, 43814.4.2 Formation and Consumption of Microbial Products, 44014.4.3 Microbial Structure and Diversity, 44114.4.4 Physicochemical Characteristics, 44214.5 Modeling Granule-Based SBR for Wastewater Treatment, 44714.5.1 Nutrient Removal in Granule-Based SBRs, 44714.5.2 Multiscale Modeling of Granule-Based SBR, 45014.6 Bioremediation of Wastewaters with Aerobic Granular Sludge Technology, 45214.6.1 Organic Wastewater Treatment, 45214.6.2 Biological Nutrient Removal, 45214.6.3 Domestic Wastewater Treatment, 45414.6.4 Xenobiotic Contaminant Bioremediation, 45414.6.5 Removal of Heavy Metals or Dyes, 45514.7 Remarks, 456References, 45715 Biodegradable Bioplastics from Fermented Sludge, Wastes, and Effluents 465Etienne Paul, Elisabeth Neuhauser, and Yu Liu15.1 Introduction, 46515.1.1 Context of Poly(hydroxyalkanoate) Production from Sludge and Effluents, 46515.1.2 Industrial Context for PHA Production, 46715.2 PHA Structure, 46915.3 Microbiology for PHA Production, 46915.4 Metabolism of PHA Production, 47115.4.1 PHB Metabolism, 47215.4.2 Metabolism for Other PHA Production, 47515.4.3 Nutrient Limitations, 47615.4.4 PHA Metabolism in Mixed Cultures, 47715.4.5 Effect of Substrate in Mixed Cultures, 47815.5 PHA Kinetics, 47915.6 PHA Storage to Minimize Excess Sludge Production in Wastewater Treatment Plants, 48115.7 Choice of Process and Reactor Design for PHA Production, 48215.7.1 Criteria, 48215.7.2 Anaerobic–Aerobic Process, 48315.7.3 Aerobic Dynamic Feeding Process, 48515.7.4 Fed-Batch Process Under Nutrient Growth Limitation, 48615.8 Culture Selection and Enrichment Strategies, 48715.9 PHA Quality and Recovery, 48915.10 Industrial Developments, 490References, 492Index 499