Biodegradable and Biobased Polymers for Environmental and Biomedical Applications

Susheel Kalia?is an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry at Bahra University, Solan, India. He has around 65 research papers in international journals along with 80 publications in national and international conferences and many book chapters. He has edited a number of books including?Biopolymers: Biomedical and Environmental Applications?(Wiley-Scrivener, 2011). Luc Avérous?is a Group Leader, Head of Polymer Research Department in an institute (ICPEES-UMR CNRS 7515) at University of Strasbourg (France), and former Lab Director. In 2003, he became a Full Professor at ECPM (University of Strasbourg), where he teaches polymer science and engineering. During the last two decades, his major research projects have dealt with biobased and/or biodegradable polymers for environmental & biomedical applications.

• Preface xvii1 Biomedical Applications for Thermoplastic Starch 1Antonio José Felix de Carvalho and Eliane Trovatti1.1 Starch as Source of Material in the Polymer Industry 11.2 Starch in Plastic Material and Thermoplastic Starch 21.3 Uses of Starch and TPS in Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Fields 51.3.1 Native Starch (Granule) as Pharmaceutical Excipient 61.3.2 Gelatinized and Thermoplastic Starch in Biomedical Application 61.3.3 Starch-based Scaffolds 101.3.4 Starch-based Biosorbable Materials - Degradation Inside Human Body 121.3.5 Cell Response to Starch and Its Degradation Products 151.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives for Starch-based Polymers 16Acknowledgment 16References 162 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: The Application of Eco-Friendly Materials 25G.V.N. Rathna, Bhagyashri S. Thorat Gadgil and Naresh Killi2.1 Introduction 252.2 Natural Occurrence 262.3 Bio-Synthetic/ Semi-Synthetic Approach 292.4 Environmental Aspects 312.5 Applications 332.6 Biomedical Applications 332.6.1 Drug Delivery 342.6.2 Implants and Scaffolds 362.7 Biodegradable Packaging Material 382.8 Agriculture 442.9 Other Applications 452.10 Scope of PHAs 462.11 Conclusions 46References 473 Cellulose Microfibrils from Natural Fiber Reinforced Biocomposites and its Applications 55Atul P Johari, Smita Mohanty and Sanjay K Nayak3.1 Introduction 553.1.1 Industrial Applications 573.2 Natural Fibers: Applications and Limitations 583.3 Plant-based Fibers 593.4 Chemical Composition, structure and Properties of Sisal Fiber 603.4.1 Cellulose Fibers 613.4.2 Hemicellulose 613.4.3 Lignin 623.4.4 Pectin 633.4.5 Bio-based and Biodegradable Polymers 633.5 Biocomposites 643.6 Classification of Biocomposites 653.6.1 Green Composites 653.6.2 Hybrid Composites 663.7 Biocomposites of CMF Reinforced of Poly (lactic acid) 673.7.1 Extraction of Cellulose Microfibrils from Sisal Fiber 673.7.2 CMF Extraction Process 693.7.3 Fabrication of PLA/CMF Biocomposite 723.8 Effect of CMF Reinforcement on the Mechanical Properties of PLA 723.9 FT-IR Analysis of Untreated Sisal Fiber (UTS), Mercerized Sisal Fiber (MSF) and Cellulose Microfibrils (CMF) 733.10 Crystalline Structure of UTS, MSF and CMF 753.11 Particle Size Determination: Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 763.12 Thermal Properties 773.12.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry of CMF Reinforced PLA biocomposites 773.12.2 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis of CMF Reinforced PLA Biocomposites 793.12.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) of CMF Reinforced PLA Biocomposites 823.13 Scanning Electron Microscopy 853.13.1 Surface Morphology of Sisal Fiber (USF, MSF and CMF) 853.13.2 Surface Morphology of CMF Reinforced PLAReferences 914 Tannins: A Resource to Elaborate Aromatic and Biobased Polymers 97Alice Arbenz and Luc Avérous4.1 Introduction 974.2 Tannin Chemistry 984.2.1 Historical Outline 984.2.2 Classification and Chemical Structure of Vascular Plant Tannins 994.2.3 Hydrolysable Tannins 994.3 Complex Tannins 1014.4 Condensed Tannins 1014.5 Non-vascular Plant Tannins 1034.5.1 Phlorotannins with Ether Bonds 1044.5.2 Phlorotannins with Phenyl bonds 1044.5.3 Phlorotannins with Ether and Phenyl bonds 1054.5.4 Phlorotannins with Ibenzo-p-dioxin Links 1064.6 Extraction of Tannins 1064.7 Chemical Modification 1084.7.1 General Background 1084.7.2 Heterocycle Reactivity 1084.8 Heterocyclic Ring Opening with Acid 1104.9 Sulfonation 1124.9.1 Reactivity of Nucleophilic Sites 1134.9.2 Bromination 1144.9.3 Reactions with Aldehydes 1164.9.4 Reaction with the Hexamine 1174.10 Mannich Reaction 1194.11 Coupling Reaction 1194.11.1 Michael Reaction 1194.11.2 Oxa-Pictet-Spengler Reaction 1204.11.3 Functionalization of the Hydroxyl Groups 1214.11.4 Acylation 1214.12 Etherification 1244.12.1 Substitution by Ammonia 1274.12.2 Reactions Between Tannin and Epoxy Groups 1284.13 Alkoxylation 1294.13.1 Reaction with Isocyanates 1304.14 Toward Biobased Polymers and Materials 1304.14.1 Adhesives 1304.14.2 Phenol-formaldehyde Foam Type 1324.15 Materials Based on Polyurethane 1334.15.1 Polyurethanes Foams 1334.15.2 Non-porous Polyurethane Materials 1334.16 Materials Based on Polyesters 1344.16.1 Materials Based on Epoxy Resins 1344.17 Conclusion 135Acknowledgments 136References 1365 Electroactivity and Applications of Jatropha Latex and Seed 149S. S. Pradhan and A. Sarkar5.1 Introduction 1495.2 Plant Latex 1505.3 Jatropha Latex 1515.3.1 Chemistry 1515.4 Jatropha Seed 1515.5 Material Preparation 1515.6 Microscopic Observations 1535.6.1 X-ray Diffraction 1535.6.2 Electronic or Vibrational Properties 1545.7 Electroactivity in Jatropha Latex 1575.7.1 Ionic Liquid Property 1575.8 Electroactivity in Jatropha Latex 1585.8.1 DC Volt-ampere Characteristics 1625.8.2 Temperature Variation of AC Conductivity 1645.9 Applications 1655.10 Conclusion 167Acknowledgements 168References 1686 Characteristics and Applications of PLA 171Sandra Domenek and Violette Ducruet6.1 Introduction 1716.2 Production of PLA 1726.2.1 Production of Lactic Acid 1726.2.2 Synthesis of PLA 1746.3 Physical PLA properties 1796.4 Microstructure and Thermal properties 1816.4.1 Amorphous Phase of PLA 1816.4.2 Crystalline Structure of PLA 1836.4.3 Crystallization Kinetics of PLA 1856.4.4 Melting of PLA 1876.5 Mechanical Properties of PLA 1886.6 Barrier Properties of PLA 1906.6.1 Gas Barrier Properties of PLA 1906.6.2 Water Vapour Permeability of PLA 1936.6.3 Permeability of Organic Vapours through PLA 1946.7 Degradation Behaviour of PLA 1956.7.1 Thermal Degradation 1956.7.2 Hydrolysis 1966.7.3 Biodegradation 1986.8 Processing 2006.9 Nanocomposites 2026.10 Applications 2046.10.1 Biomedical Applications of PLA 2046.10.2 Packaging Applications Commodity of PLA 2056.10.3 Textile Applications 2086.10.4 Automotive Applications of PLA 2096.10.5 Building Applications 2106.10.6 Other Applications of PLA 2106.11 Conclusion 211References 2117 PBS Makes Its Entrance into the Family of Biobased Plastics 225Laura Sisti, Grazia Totaro and Paola Marchese7.1 Introduction 2257.2 PBS Market 2277.3 PBS Production 2297.3.1 Succinic Acid Production 2307.3.2 1,4-Butanediol Production 2337.3.3 Synthesis of PBS 2347.4 Properties of PBS 2377.5 Copolymers of PBS 2407.5.1 Random Copolymers 2407.5.2 Block Copolymers 2477.5.3 Chain Branching 2507.6 PBS Composites and Nanocomposites 2537.6.1 Inorganic Fillers 2537.6.2 Natural Fibers 2587.7 Degradation and Recycling 2627.7.1 Enzymatic Degradation 2627.7.2 Non Enzymatic Degradation 2667.7.3 Natural Weathering Degradation 2667.7.4 Thermal Degradation 2677.7.5 Recycling 2677.8 Processing and Applications of PBS and its Copolymers 2697.9 Conclusions 273Abbreviations 273References 2748 Development of Biobased Polymers and Their Composites from Vegetable Oils 289Patit P. Kundu and Rakesh Das 8.1 Introduction 2898.2 Source and Functional Groups of Vegetable Oil 2908.3 Direct Cross-Linking of Vegetable Oil forPolymer Synthesis 2928.3.1 Cationic Polymerization 2928.4 Free Radical Polymerization 2958.5 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils for Polymer Synthesis 2978.5.1 Synthesis of Polymers after Epoxidation of Vegetable Oils 2978.6 Polymer Synthesis after Esterification of Vegetable Oils 2998.7 Polyol and Polyurethanes from Vegetable Oils 3028.8 Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites from Vegetable Oils 3068.9 Conclusions 311References 3129 Polymers as Drug Delivery Systems 323Magdy W. Sabaa9.1 Introduction 3239.2 Types of Modified Drug Delivery Systems 3249.3 Concept of Drug Delivery Matrix 3259.4 Polymeric Materials as Carriers for Drug Delivery Systems 3269.4.1 Polysaccharides and Modified Polysaccharides as Matrices for Drug Delivery Systems 3269.4.2 pH-sensitive as Drug Delivery Systems 3319.4.3 Thermo-sensitive as Drug Delivery Systems 3359.4.4 Light-sensitive as Drug Delivery Systems 3389.5 Conclusions 340References 34110 Nanocellulose as a Millennium Material with Enhancing Adsorption Capacities 351Norhene Mahfoudhi and Sami Boufi10.1 Introduction 35110.2 From Cellulose to Nanocellulose 35310.3 General Remarks about Adsorption Phenomena 35510.4 Nanobibrillated Cellulose as a Novel Adsorbent 35910.5 NFC in Heavy Metal Adsorption 36310.6 NFC as an Adsorbent for Organic Pollutants 37210.7 NFC in Oil Adsorption 37310.8 NFC in Adsorption of Dyes 37610.9 Nanofibrillar Cellulose as a Flocculent for Waste Water 37910.10 NFC in CO2 Adsorption 38010.11 Conclusion 381References 38111 Towards Biobased Aromatic Polymers from Lignins 387Stephanie Laurichesse and Luc Avérous 38711.1 Introduction 38811.2 Lignin Chemistry 38911.2.1 Historical Outline 38911.2.2 Chemical Structure 39011.2.3 Physical Properties 39111.3 Isolation of Lignin from Wood 39311.3.1 The Biorefinery Concept 39311.3.2 Extraction Processes and their Resulting Technical Lignins 39411.4 Chemical Modification 39811.4.1 General Background 39811.4.2 Fragmentation of Lignin 39911.4.3 Pyrolysis 40111.4.4 Gasification 40311.4.5 Oxidation 40311.4.6 Liquefaction 40411.4.7 Enzymatic Oxidation 40611.4.8 Outlook 40711.5 Synthesis of New Chemical Active Sites 40711.5.1 Alkylation/Dealkylation 40711.5.2 Hydroxalkylation 40911.5.3 Amination 41011.5.4 Nitration 41111.6 Functionalization of Hydroxyl Groups 41211.6.1 Esterification 41211.6.2 Phenolation 41511.6.3 Etherification and Ring Opening Polymerisations 41611.6.4 Urethanisation 41811.7 Toward Lignin Based Polymers and Materials 42011.7.1 Lignin as a Viable Route forPolymers Syntheses 42011.7.2 ATRP - A Useful Method to Develop Lignin-Based Functional Material 42211.7.3 High Performance Material Made with Lignin: Carbon Fibers 42311.7.4 Toward Commercialized Lignin-based Polymers   42411.8 Conclusion 424Acknowledgments 425References 42512 Biopolymers – Proteins (Polypeptides) and Nucleic Acids 439S. Georgiev, Z. Angelova and T. Dekova12.1 Structure of Protein Molecules 44012.1.1 Peptide Bonds 44112.1.2 Secondary Structure of Protein Molecule 44112.1.3 Tertiary Structure of Proteins 44212.1.4 Quaternary Structure of Proteins 44312.2 Abnormal Haemoglobin 44412.3 Methods for Proteome Analysis 44612.4 Advantages of the Method 44612.5 Study of Proteins with Post-Translational Modifications 44712.6 Biodegradable Polymers 44812.6.1 DNA The Molecule of Heredity 45112.6.2 Experiments Designate DNA as the Genetic Material 45212.6.3 Bacterial Transformation Implicates DNA as the Substance of Genes 45212.6.4 Identification of RNA as the Genetic Material 45412.6.5 The Structures of DNA and RNA 45512.6.6 Left Handed DNA Helices 45612.6.7 Some DNA Molecules are Circular instead of Linear 45612.6.8 RNA as the Genetic Material (Structure) 45712.6.9 Hammerhead Ribozymes HHRs 45812.7 Regulation Gene Function Through RNA Interfering and MicroRNA Pathways 46012.7.1 How dsRNA can Switch off Expression of a Gene? 46112.7.2 MicroRNAs Also Control the Expression of Some Genes 46312.8 DNA Vaccines 46412.9 Conclusion 467References 46713 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-based Multiple-unit Systems for Sustained Drug Release 471Amit Kumar Nayak 47113.1 Introduction 47113.2 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide 47313.2.1 Sources and Extraction 47313.3 Composition 47413.4 Properties 47413.5 Use of Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide in Drug Delivery 47513.6 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-based Microparticle/Beads for Sustained Drug Delivery 47613.7 Extrusion-Spheronization Method 47613.7.1 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide Spheroids  Containing Diclofenac Sodium 47613.8 Ionotropic-Gelation  Method 47813.8.1 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-alginate Beads Containing Diclofenac Sodium 47813.8.2 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-alginate Mucoadhesive Microspheres Containing Gliclazide 48013.8.3 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-alginate Mucoadhesive Beads Containing Metformin HCl 48113.7.4 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-pectinate Mucoadhesive Beads Containing Metformin HCl 48113.8.5 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-gellan Mucoadhesive Beads Containing Metformin HCl 48313.9 Covalent Crosslinking 48513.9.1 Chitosan-Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide Interpenetrating Polymeric Network Microparticles Containing Aceclofenac 48513.10 Combined  Ionotropic-Gelation/Covalent Crosslinking 48813.10.1 Interpenetrated Polymer Network Microbeads Containing Diltiazem-Indion 254® Complex made of Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide and Sodium Alginate 48813.11 By Ionotropic Emulsion-gelation 48913.11.1 Oil-entrapped Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide- Alginate Blend Floating Beads Containing Diclofenac Sodium 48913.12 Conclusion 490References 490Index 493