Beneath the Mask

Robert Sollod is currently Professor of Psychology at Cleveland State University. His research interests include personality theories and their origins, psychotherapy integration, and the relation of spirituality to psychotherapy. He is a member of the American Psychotherapy Association and the Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration.

• 1. Basic Issues: How to Approach the Study of Personality Theories 1A Useful Metaphor: The Mask and the Person Beneath 1Beginning the Study of Personality: A Personal Note 2One Truth or Many Perspectives? 3Personality Theories as Creative Solutions to Personal Problems 5What About Abnormal Psychology? 6Personology Or Personality Theory? 8Impact of Culture and Society 9Three Major Tools for Evaluating Personality Theories 10Additional Dimensions of Personality Theories 12Some Welcoming Words 14For Further Reading 14Glossary 142. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Clinical Evidence 15About Freud’s Clinical Psychoanalysis 15A Personal Aside: Why Study Freud’s Ideas? 16The Hysterical Neurosis of Bertha Pappenheim 17“Clouds”: Self-Induced Hypnosis 19Hypnosis and Hysteria: From Pathology to Cure 24Frau Emmy Von N. 28First Clue in the Discovery of Free Association: Freud Learns to Listen 30The Theoretical Yield from Frau Emmy’s Therapy 32The Evolution of Method: Fraülein Von R. 33Second Clue to the Free Association Method: The Pressure or Concentration Technique 34The Theoretical Yield from Fraülein Ilona Weiss’s Therapy 39A Final Clue to the Free Association Method 41Freud’s Continuing Theorizing about Hypnosis 42Compromise Formation: The Meaning of Symptoms 42Sexual Motives as the Basis of Conflict: Origins of the Hypothesis 44Freud’s Integrity Questioned— and the Questioner Questioned 47Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: Freud’s Self-Analysis 49Psychosexual Development: Oedipus and Electra 53The Complete Oedipal Complex 58Psychosexual Stages: Libidinal Organization 63Evaluating Clinical Psychoanalysis 67Summary 69For Further Reading 70Glossary 713. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Dynamic Model of the Mind 74About Freud’s Model of the Mind 74Dreams as Wish Fulfillment 75Personal Sources: Freud’s Father and Mother Dreams 76Manifest and Latent Dream Content: The Mask 80Four Processes of Dream Work 81Study of the Dream: Theoretical Yield 84The Reality Principle 88The Meanings of the Unconscious in Psychoanalysis 89Metapsychology of Repression 91Instincts of the Unconscious 93Characteristics of Instincts 93Dualistic Division of the Instincts: Hunger versus Love 94Behaviors Beyond the Pleasure Principle: The Clinical Evidence 97Reduction of the Pleasure Principle to a Pleasure “Tendency” 98Revision of Instinct Theory: Eros and Death 100The Final Structural Model of the Mind 103The Id 104The Ego 104The Superego 106Id, Ego, Superego Interactions 109Freud’s Changing Conceptions of Anxiety 110Evaluating Theoretical Psychoanalysis 113Summary 116For Further Reading 117Glossary 1184. Alfred Adler / Individual Psychology 121Adler’s Individual Psychology 121Adler’s Boyhood Difficulties: Illness, Rejection, and the Fear of Death 122Freud and Adler: Dissent over the Fundamental Human Motive 123Adler’s Differences with Freud 124On Human Nature—Adler, the Naϊıve Optimist, or Freud, the Realistic Pessimist?125From Minus to Plus Self-Estimates 126Masculine Protest: Not for Men Only 128Social Interest and Adler’s Religious Values 129Individuality, Social Interest and Style of Life: Vaihinger’s Idea of Fictional Finalism 129Combining Vaihinger’s Ideas with His Own Theory 130The Neurotic Personality: Overdoing the Search for Perfection 131Social Interest and the Tasks of Life 135Individuality, Social Interest, and Style of Life 137Early Recollections as Indicators of Style of Life 138Ordinal Position within the Family as Indicator of Style of Life 139Evaluating Alfred Adler 141Summary 143For Further Reading 144Glossary 1455. Carl Gustav Jung / Analytical Psychology 147About Jung’s Analytical Psychology 147Experimental Study of Word Associations 148Emotional Complex Indicators 149Discovering a Case of Criminally Negligent Homicide through the Word Association Test 150Jung’s Concept of Libido 152The Principles of Equivalence and Entropy 152Learning from Ancient Mythology 153Visionary and Creative or Just Crazy? 154Jung and Freud: From Admiration to Bitterness 159Jung’s Philosophical Background 160Structure of the Psyche: Ego, Personal, and Collective Unconscious 160Archetypes and Their Origins 162Archetypes, Popular Culture, and Society 166Jungian Attitude Types: Freud the Extrovert and Adler the Introvert 166The Functions of the Psyche 167The Extrovert Types 168The Introvert Types 170The Process of Individuation 171Development of the Self: A Teleological View of Life 172Evaluating Carl Jung 174Summary 176For Further Reading 177Glossary 1776. Anna Freud / Widening the Scope of Psychoanalysis: Ego Psychology 179About Ego Psychology 179Legitimizing Ego Psychology 180Personal Sources: From Being Unwanted to Becoming Indispensable 180Widening the Scope of Analysis: Little Patients’ Problems 185Making the Child Analyzable: The Preparatory Phase 186The Child Analysis: Proper Techniques 188The Theoretical Yield: New Meanings for Familiar Analytic Concepts 192The Ego Defends Itself: Profiles of Mastery and Vulnerability 199A Final Word on Anna Freud 204The Legacy of Anna Freud 204Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Ego Psychologists 205Summary 205For Further Reading 206Glossary 2067. Melanie Klein & Donald W. Winnicott / The Psychoanalytic Heritage: Object Relations Theories 208About Object Relations Theories 208MELANIE KLEINWhat are Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theories? 209Psychoanalysis as Pedagogy: Educating Erich 209Klein’s Discovery of “Phantasy” 209Development of the Object World 211Infantile Sadism and the Oedipus Complex 212How It All Turns Out: Klein’s First Theory of the Superego 215Anxiety: First Modifications of Klein’s Developmental Theory 217Hate Versus Guilt: Repairing the Ravages of Sadism 219Paranoic and Depressive Positions: Klein’s First Theory 220Manic and Depressive Positions in Adult Psychopathology 221Love, Guilt, and Reparation 224Projection + Identification = Splitting Revisited 225Reparation: The Link between Positions 229Envy and Gratitude: The Forever Generous, Tolerant, and Bountiful Breast 230Defending Against Envy: The Most Deadly of Sins 232Some Personal Sources of Klein’s Vision of the Infant’s World 234A Final Word on Melanie Klein 237D. W. WINNICOTTA Commonsensical and Creative Child Analyst 237Unconventional Psychoanalysis: The Pediatric Consultation Model 240Early Theory: The Kleinian Influence 245Primitive Personality Development: Winnicott Style 247Environmental Emphasis: “There’s No Such Thing as a Baby” 249Exploring Deeper Questions 257Personal Sources from Winnicott’s Childhood 258A Final Word on D. W. Winnicott 261Evaluating Object Relations Theory 261Summary 262For Further Reading 265Glossary 2658. Erik Homburger Erikson / Psychoanalytic Ego Psychology: The Centrality of Identity 267About Erikson’s Ego Psychology 267Identity’s Architect  268Life History Sources of the Identity Hypothesis 270Clinical Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: War Veterans 271Anthropological Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: The Oglala Sioux 273The Ego Identity Hypothesis and Psychoanalytic Theory 274Psychosocial Development: An Epigenetic Sequence 275Viewing Erikson’s Epigenetic Theory of Identity Formation 276The Life Cycle: Eight Stages of Human Development 278Acquiring a Sense of Trust versus Mistrust: Hope 280Acquiring a Sense of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt: Will 281Acquiring a Sense of Initiative versus Guilt: Purpose 283Acquiring a Sense of Industry versus Inferiority: Competence 284Acquiring a Sense of Identity versus Role Confusion: Fidelity 285Acquiring a Sense of Intimacy versus Isolation: Love 287Acquiring a Sense of Generativity versus Stagnation: Care 288Acquiring Ego Integrity versus Despair: Wisdom 289Applying Erikson’s Stage Theory 291Some Concluding Remarks on Erikson 291Evaluating Erik Erikson 292Summary 293For Further Reading 294Glossary 2949. Harry Stack Sullivan / Interpersonal Theory 298About Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory 298Three Modes of Experience: Prototaxic, Parataxic, Syntaxic 299The Development of Personality: An Interpersonal Emphasis 301Differentiation of Self from the Universe 302Personal Sources of Sullivan’s Emphasis on Human Relationships 303Personifications of Self: Good-Me, Bad-Me, Not-Me 309The Self-System: Security Operations 311Selective Inattention 313Me-You Personifications 313Developmental Epochs: From Infancy to Late Adolescence 314Evaluating Harry Stack Sullivan 318Summary 319For Further Reading 320Glossary 32010. Karen Horney / Psychoanalytic Social Psychology 322About Horney’s Social Psychoanalytic Approach 322Anxious in a Hostile World 323Neurotic1 Needs and Trends 325Personal Sources of the Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility Hypotheses 326An Illustrative Case: Clare, An Unwanted Child 331Despised Real Self, Ideal Self, and the Actual Self 332The Core Neurotic Conflict: Alienation from Real Self 334Interpersonal Coping Strategies: Moves Toward, Against, and Away from Others 335Auxiliary Conflict Solutions 339Horney’s Feminist, Culturally Based Modifications of Freudian Theory 341A Final Word on Karen Horney 343Summary 343For Further Reading 344Glossary 34411. Gordon W. Allport / Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346About Allport’s Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346Was Young Allport Misunderstood by Freud Himself? 347“How Shall a Psychological Life History Be Written?” 348Toward a Personalistic Psychology 349Personal Sources of Allport’s Emphasis on Uniqueness and Independence 350Personality: Allport’s Definition 352Personal Documents: An Idiographic Approach to Life History 356An Illustrative Case: Analysis of Jenny Gove Masterson’s Letters 358Criticisms and Allport’s Responses 361“Traits Revisited”: Heuristic Realism 362The Mature, Healthy Personality 362Functional Autonomy: Allport’s Theory of Motivation 366Evaluating Gordon Allport 368Summary 369For Further Reading 370Glossary 37112. Rollo May / Existential Phenomenology 373About Rollo May’s Existential Phenomenology 373A Lonely Young Man, Looking for Answers to Deep Questions 374Existential Phenomenological Psychology and Psychotherapy 377Contributions of European Philosophy 377Ontological Principles: “Mrs. Hutchens” 378The Problem of Nothingness 383Personal Sources of May’s Existentialism 385Love and Will 388Four Forms of Loving 388Good and Evil 391Will 392Freedom 394Destiny 395Evaluating Rollo May 397Summary 398For Further Reading 399Glossary 40013. Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers / Humanistic Self-Actualization Theory 402About Maslow and Rogers’ Humanistic Psychologies 402ABRAHAM MASLOWWhat About the Healthy Personality and the Striving for Full Self-Realization? 403The Origin of Maslow’s Interest in Psychological Health 404Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: “In Pursuit of Angels” 406Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Persons 408Learning from Critical Mentor Figures 410The Hierarchy of Needs: From Deficiency to Growth Motivation and Self-Actualization 410Beyond Self-Actualization: The B-Values 419Humanistic Psychology: The Third Force 421Toward a Transpersonal Viewpoint 421CARL ROGERSA Harbinger of Things to Come 422Rogers’ Theory of Personality and Behavior 423Psychotherapist as Self-Actualization Facilitator 426Development of the Nondirective Viewpoint 428Personal Sources of Rogers’ Emphasis on Freedom and Self-Worth 430Early Nondirective View: Too Much Freedom 433Client-Centered Therapy: Empathic Understanding 434Experiential Therapy: The Conditions of Personality Change 434Personality Changes Evoked by the Therapeutic Relationship 436The Fully Functioning Person: Ideal Mental Health 437Rogers’ Model of Development 438The Importance of Approval 438Incongruence between Self and Experience 440Personality Disorganization 440Some Criticisms of Rogers’ Approach 441Operationalizing the Concept of Self: Q-Sort Methodology 441Evaluating Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers 443Summary 444For Further Reading 445Glossary 44614. George A. Kelly / Personal Construct Theory 449About George A. Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 449Uncovering a Person’s Constructs of Personality 450Grid Form of the Rep Test: A Person’s Own Personality Theory 452Kelly: The Inventive Psychological Tinkerer 455Each Person is a Scientist 457Kelly’s Fundamental Postulate and 11 Corollaries 457Construction and Individuality Corollaries: The Person as a Process 458Hierarchy of Experience: Organization and Dichotomy Corollaries 458Choice, Range, and Experience Corollaries: Limitations of Anticipation 459Modulation and Fragmentation Corollaries: Variation versus Stability 460Commonality and Sociality Corollaries: Shared Experience 461The Mask Metaphor Again 462The CPC Cycle: Circumspection, Preemption, and Control/Choice 463Some Traditional Personality Variables as Kelly Recast Them 466Evaluating Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 468Summary 469For Further Reading 470Glossary 47015. Albert Bandura / Social Cognitive Theory 472About Social Cognitive Theory 472Misconstrued as a Behaviorist 473What About Bandura’s Own Life? 480Developmental Phases of Self-Efficacy 481Selective Activation of Self-Controls 488Bandura’s Model of Anxiety and Repression 489Does Chance Play a Role in Life? 491Bandura’s Theories and Today’s World 492Evaluating the Approach of Bandura 492Summary 493For Further Reading 494Glossary 49416. Hans Eysenck / Biologically Based Typology 496About Eysenck’s Biologically Based Typology 496Research Psychologist as Scientist and a Bit of a Maverick 497Childhood Sources of Eysenck’s Intellectual Independence 497Early Descriptive Researches: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism 501Historical Antecedents of Introversion-Extroversion Dimensions 503Pavlov’s Dogs: Excitation-Inhibition Temperaments 504Hull’s Drive Theory: Individual Differences in Performance 509Individual Differences and Eysenck’s Typology 510Arousability and the Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS) 512Translation of Excitation-Inhibition into Arousal Concepts 514A Direct Test of the Arousal Theory: Stimulant and Depressant Drugs 519Acquisition of Neurosis: The Socialization of Introverts and Extroverts 519Psychoticism: Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited 521Psychoticism, Crime, and Genetics 522The “Big Five”: A Model Based on Factor Analysis 526Evaluating Eysenck’s Typology 528Summary 529For Further Reading 531Glossary 53117. Edward O. Wilson / Evolutionary Psychology 534About Evolutionary Psychology 534The Roots of a Naturalist 535Encountering Lorenz and His Ideas 538Darwin’s (and Wallace’s) Theory of Natural Selection 539Wilson Encounters Hamilton’s Ideas 541From Insect Societies to Sociobiology to Human Nature 542Evolutionary Concepts in Classical Personality Theories 544Further Developments in Evolutionary Psychological Thinking 549Human Nature Does Exist 553Evolutionary Psychology from a Broader, More Objective Perspective 554Some Misconceptions About Evolutionary Psychology 555How Might an Evolutionary Psychologist Proceed? 557An Actual Example—Not of Postdiction, but of Prediction—Sort of 558Evolutionary Psychology and Psychopathology 561A Final Word on Evolutionary Psychology 562Summary 564For Further Reading 564Glossary 565Bibliography 567Photo Credits 585Name Index 587Subject Index 591