Analysis and Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations

LYMON C. REESE is Nasser I. Al Rashid Chair Emeritus and Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Texas, Austin. He's also a partner in the firm of Lymon C. Reese & Associates. He's the author of more than 150 technical papers and coauthor of several books, including Dynamics of Offshore Structures, Second Edition (published by Wiley). WILLIAM M. ISENHOWER is a project manager for Lymon C. Reese & Associates. He is a codeveloper of the LPILE plus computer program and is a registered professional engineer in Texas. SHIN-TOWER WANG is President of Lymon C. Reese & Associates. He is the author or coauthor of more than thirty papers and publications on foundation engineering. He is a registered professional engineer in Texas.

• Preface xviiAcknowledgments xxiSymbols and Notations xxiii1 Introduction 11.1 Historical Use of Foundations 11.2 Kinds of Foundations and their Uses 11.2.1 Spread Footings and Mats 11.2.2 Deep Foundations 41.2.3 Hybrid Foundations 71.3 Concepts in Design 71.3.1 Visit the Site 71.3.2 Obtain Information on Geology at Site 71.3.3 Obtain Information on Magnitude and Nature of Loads on Foundation 81.3.4 Obtain Information on Properties of Soil at Site 81.3.5 Consider Long-Term Effects 91.3.6 Pay Attention to Analysis 91.3.7 Provide Recommendations for Tests of Deep Foundations 91.3.8 Observe the Behavior of the Foundation of a Completed Structure 10Problems 102 Engineering Geology 112.1 Introduction 112.2 Nature of Soil Affected by Geologic Processes 122.2.1 Nature of Transported Soil 122.2.2 Weathering and Residual Soil 142.2.3 Nature of Soil Affected by Volcanic Processes 142.2.4 Nature of Glaciated Soil 152.2.5 Karst Geology 162.3 Available Data on Regions in the United States 162.4 U.S. Geological Survey and State Agencies 172.5 Examples of the Application of Engineering Geology 182.6 Site Visit 19Problems 193 Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics 213.1 Introduction 213.2 Data Needed for the Design of Foundations 213.2.1 Soil and Rock Classification 223.2.2 Position of the Water Table 223.2.3 Shear Strength and Density 233.2.4 Deformability Characteristics 233.2.5 Prediction of Changes in Conditions and the Environment 243.3 Nature of Soil 243.3.1 Grain-Size Distribution 243.3.2 Types of Soil and Rock 263.3.3 Mineralogy of Common Geologic Materials 263.3.4 Water Content and Void Ratio 303.3.5 Saturation of Soil 313.3.6 Weight–Volume Relationships 313.3.7 Atterberg Limits and the Unified Soils Classification System 343.4 Concept of Effective Stress 373.4.1 Laboratory Tests for Consolidation of Soils 393.4.2 Spring and Piston Model of Consolidation 423.4.3 Determination of Initial Total Stresses 453.4.4 Calculation of Total and Effective Stresses 473.4.5 The Role of Effective Stress in Soil Mechanics 493.5 Analysis of Consolidation and Settlement 493.5.1 Time Rates of Settlement 493.5.2 One-Dimensional Consolidation Testing 573.5.3 The Consolidation Curve 643.5.4 Calculation of Total Settlement 673.5.5 Calculation of Settlement Due to Consolidation 683.5.6 Reconstruction of the Field Consolidation Curve 693.5.7 Effects of Sample Disturbance on Consolidation Properties 733.5.8 Correlation of Consolidation Indices with Index Tests 783.5.9 Comments on Accuracy of Settlement Computations 803.6 Shear Strength of Soils 813.6.1 Introduction 813.6.2 Friction Between Two Surfaces in Contact 813.6.3 Direct Shear Testing 843.6.4 Triaxial Shear Testing 843.6.5 Drained Triaxial Tests on Sand 893.6.6 Triaxial Shear Testing of Saturated Clays 923.6.7 The SHANSEP Method 1193.6.8 Other Types of Shear Testing for Soils 1223.6.9 Selection of the Appropriate Testing Method 123Problems 1244 Investigation of Subsurface Conditions 1344.1 Introduction 1344.2 Methods of Advancing Borings 1364.2.1 Wash-Boring Technique 1364.2.2 Continuous-Flight Auger with Hollow Core 1374.3 Methods of Sampling 1394.3.1 Introduction 1394.3.2 Sampling with Thin-Walled Tubes 1394.3.3 Sampling with Thick-Walled Tubes 1424.3.4 Sampling Rock 1424.4 In Situ Testing of Soil 1444.4.1 Cone Penetrometer and Piezometer-Cone Penetrometer 1444.4.2 Vane Shear Device 1464.4.3 Pressuremeter 1484.5 Boring Report 1524.6 Subsurface Investigations for Offshore Structures 153Problems 1555 Principal Types of Foundations 1585.1 Shallow Foundations 1585.2 Deep Foundations 1605.2.1 Introduction 1605.2.2 Driven Piles with Impact Hammer 1605.2.3 Drilled Shafts 1625.2.4 Augercast Piles 1685.2.5 GeoJet Piles 1705.2.6 Micropiles 1725.3 Caissons 1725.4 Hybrid Foundation 173Problems 1756 Designing Stable Foundations 1766.1 Introduction 1766.2 Total and Differential Settlement 1776.3 Allowable Settlement of Structures 1786.3.1 Tolerance of Buildings to Settlement 1786.3.2 Exceptional Case of Settlement 1786.3.3 Problems in Proving Settlement 1806.4 Soil Investigations Appropriate to Design 1806.4.1 Planning 1806.4.2 Favorable Profiles 1816.4.3 Soils with Special Characteristics 1816.4.4 Calcareous Soil 1826.5 Use of Valid Analytical Methods 1866.5.1 Oil Tank in Norway 1876.5.2 Transcona Elevator in Canada 1876.5.3 Bearing Piles in China 1886.6 Foundations at Unstable Slopes 1896.6.1 Pendleton Levee 1896.6.2 Fort Peck Dam 1906.7 Effects of Installation on the Quality of Deep Foundations 1906.7.1 Introduction 1906.8 Effects of Installation of Deep Foundations on Nearby Structures 1926.8.1 Driving Piles 1926.9 Effects of Excavations on Nearby Structures 1936.10 Deleterious Effects of the Environment on Foundations 1946.11 Scour of Soil at Foundations 194Problems 1947 Theories of Bearing Capacity and Settlement 1967.1 Introduction 1967.2 Terzaghi’s Equations for Bearing Capacity 1987.3 Revised Equations for Bearing Capacity 1997.4 Extended Formulas for Bearing Capacity by J. Brinch Hansen 2007.4.1 Eccentricity 2037.4.2 Load Inclination Factors 2047.4.3 Base and Ground Inclination 2057.4.4 Shape Factors 2057.4.5 Depth Effect 2067.4.6 Depth Factors 2067.4.7 General Formulas 2087.4.8 Passive Earth Pressure 2087.4.9 Soil Parameters 2097.4.10 Example Computations 2097.5 Equations for Computing Consolidation Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Saturated Clays 2137.5.1 Introduction 2137.5.2 Prediction of Total Settlement Due to Loading of Clay Below the Water Table 2147.5.3 Prediction of Time Rate of Settlement Due to Loading of Clay Below the Water Table 219Problems 2228 Principles for the Design of Foundations 2238.1 Introduction 2238.2 Standards of Professional Conduct 2238.2.1 Fundamental Principles 2238.2.2 Fundamental Canons 2248.3 Design Team 2248.4 Codes and Standards 2258.5 Details of the Project 2258.6 Factor of Safety 2268.6.1 Selection of a Global Factor of Safety 2288.6.2 Selection of Partial Factors of Safety 2298.7 Design Process 2308.8 Specifications and Inspection of the Project 2318.9 Observation of the Completed Structure 232Problems 233Appendix 8.1 2349 Geotechnical Design of Shallow Foundations 2359.1 Introduction 2359.2 Problems with Subsidence 2359.3 Designs to Accommodate Construction 2379.3.1 Dewatering During Construction 2379.3.2 Dealing with Nearby Structures 2379.4 Shallow Foundations on Sand 2389.4.1 Introduction 2389.4.2 Immediate Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Sand 2399.4.3 Bearing Capacity of Footings on Sand 2449.4.4 Design of Rafts on Sand 2479.5 Shallow Foundations on Clay 2479.5.1 Settlement from Consolidation 2479.5.2 Immediate Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Clay 2519.5.3 Design of Shallow Foundations on Clay 2539.5.4 Design of Rafts 2559.6 Shallow Foundations Subjected to Vibratory Loading 2559.7 Designs in Special Circumstances 2579.7.1 Freezing Weather 2579.7.2 Design of Shallow Foundations on Collapsible Soil 2609.7.3 Design of Shallow Foundations on Expansive Clay 2609.7.4 Design of Shallow Foundations on Layered Soil 2629.7.5 Analysis of a Response of a Strip Footing by Finite Element Method 263Problems 26510 Geotechnical Design of Driven Piles Under Axial Loads 27010.1 Comment on the Nature of the Problem 27010.2 Methods of Computation 27310.2.1 Behavior of Axially Loaded Piles 27310.2.2 Geotechnical Capacity of Axially Loaded Piles 27510.3 Basic Equation for Computing the Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity of a Single Pile 27710.3.1 API Methods 27710.3.2 Revised Lambda Method 28410.3.3 U.S. Army Corps Method 28610.3.4 FHWA Method 29110.4 Analyzing the Load–Settlement Relationship of an Axially Loaded Pile 29710.4.1 Methods of Analysis 29710.4.2 Interpretation of Load-Settlement Curves 30310.5 Investigation of Results Based on the Proposed Computation Method 30610.6 Example Problems 30710.6.1 Skin Friction 30810.7 Analysis of Pile Driving 31210.7.1 Introduction 31210.7.2 Dynamic Formulas 31310.7.3 Reasons for the Problems with Dynamic Formulas 31410.7.4 Dynamic Analysis by the Wave Equation 31510.7.5 Effects of Pile Driving 31710.7.6 Effects of Time After Pile Driving with No Load 320Problems 32111 Geotechnical Design of Drilled Shafts Under Axial Loading 32311.1 Introduction 32311.2 Presentation of the FHWA Design Procedure 32311.2.1 Introduction 32311.3 Strength and Serviceability Requirements 32411.3.1 General Requirements 32411.3.2 Stability Analysis 32411.3.3 Strength Requirements 32411.4 Design Criteria 32511.4.1 Applicability and Deviations 32511.4.2 Loading Conditions 32511.4.3 Allowable Stresses 32511.5 General Computations for Axial Capacity of Individual Drilled Shafts 32511.6 Design Equations for Axial Capacity in Compression and in Uplift 32611.6.1 Description of Soil and Rock for Axial Capacity Computations 32611.6.2 Design for Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils 32611.6.3 Design for Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils 33411.6.4 Design for Axial Capacity in Cohesive Intermediate Geomaterials and Jointed Rock 34511.6.5 Design for Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Intermediate Geomaterials 36211.6.6 Design for Axial Capacity in Massive Rock 36511.6.7 Addition of Side Resistance and End Bearing in Rock 37411.6.8 Commentary on Design for Axial Capacity in Karst 37511.6.9 Comparison of Results from Theory and Experiment 376Problems 37712 Fundamental Concepts Regarding Deep Foundations Under Lateral Loading 37912.1 Introduction 37912.1.1 Description of the Problem 37912.1.2 Occurrence of Piles Under Lateral Loading 37912.1.3 Historical Comment 38112.2 Derivation of the Differential Equation 38212.2.1 Solution of the Reduced Form of the Differential Equation 38612.3 Response of Soil to Lateral Loading 39312.4 Effect of the Nature of Loading on the Response of Soil 39612.5 Method of Analysis for Introductory Solutions for a Single Pile 39712.6 Example Solution Using Nondimensional Charts for Analysis of a Single Pile 401Problems 41113 Analysis of Individual Deep Foundations Under Axial Loading Using t-z Model 41313.1 Short-Term Settlement and Uplift 41313.1.1 Settlement and Uplift Movements 41313.1.2 Basic Equations 41413.1.3 Finite Difference Equations 41713.1.4 Load-Transfer Curves 41713.1.5 Load-Transfer Curves for Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil 41813.1.6 Load-Transfer Curves for End Bearing in Cohesive Soil 41913.1.7 Load-Transfer Curves for Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil 42113.1.8 Load-Transfer Curves for End Bearing in Cohesionless Soil 42513.1.9 Load-Transfer Curves for Cohesionless Intermediated Geomaterials 42613.1.10 Example Problem 43013.1.11 Experimental Techniques for Obtaining Load-Transfer Versus Movement Curves 43613.2 Design for Vertical Ground Movements Due to Downdrag or Expansive Uplift 43713.2.1 Downward Movement Due to Downdrag 43813.2.2 Upward Movement Due to Expansive Uplift 439Problems 44014 Analysis and Design By Computer or Piles Subjected to Lateral Loading 44114.1 Nature of the Comprehensive Problem 44114.2 Differential Equation for a Comprehensive Solution 44214.3 Recommendations for p-y Curves for Soil and Rock 44314.3.1 Introduction 44314.3.2 Recommendations for p-y Curves for Clays 44714.3.3 Recommendations for p-y Curves for Sands 46414.3.4 Modifications to p-y Curves for Sloping Ground 47314.3.5 Modifications for Raked (Battered Piles) 47714.3.6 Recommendations for p-y Curves for Rock 47814.4 Solution of the Differential Equation by Computer 48414.4.1 Introduction 48414.4.2 Formulation of the Equation by Finite Differences 48614.4.3 Equations for Boundary Conditions for Useful Solutions 48714.5 Implementation of Computer Code 48914.5.1 Selection of the Length of the Increment 49014.5.2 Safe Penetration of Pile with No Axial Load 49114.5.3 Buckling of a Pipe Extending Above the Groundline 49214.5.4 Steel Pile Supporting a Retaining Wall 49214.5.5 Drilled Shaft Supporting an Overhead Structure 496Problems 49915 Analysis of Pile Groups 50315.1 Introduction 50315.2 Distribution of Load to Piles in a Group: The Two-Dimensional Problem 50315.2.1 Model of the Problem 50415.2.2 Detailed Step-by-Step Solution Procedure 51015.3 Modification of p-y Curves for Battered Piles 51015.4 Example Solution Showing Distribution of a Load to Piles in a Two-Dimensional Group 51115.4.1 Solution by Hand Computations 51115.5 Efficiency of Piles in Groups Under Lateral Loading 51715.5.1 Modifying Lateral Resistance of Closely Spaced Piles 51715.5.2 Customary Methods of Adjusting Lateral Resistance for Close Spacing 51815.5.3 Adjusting for Close Spacing under Lateral Loading by Modified p-y Curves 52115.6 Efficiency of Piles in Groups Under Axial Loading 52715.6.1 Introduction 52715.6.2 Efficiency of Piles in a Group in Cohesionless Soils 52915.6.3 Efficiency of Piles in a Group in Cohesive Soils 53115.6.4 Concluding Comments 534Problems 535Appendix 537References 539Index 559