Alginates

Shakeel Ahmed is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Government Degree College Mendhar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He obtained his PhD in the area of biopolymers and bionanocomposites and has published several research publications in the area of green nanomaterials and biopolymers for various applications including biomedical, packaging, sensors, and water treatment. He has edited or co-edited 4 books for Wiley-Scrivener.

• Preface xvPart 1: Alginates—Introduction, Characterization and Properties 11 Alginates: General Introduction and Properties 3Rutika Sehgal, Akshita Mehta and Reena Gupta1.1 Introduction 41.2 History 41.3 Structure 41.4 Alginates and Their Properties 61.4.1 Gel Formation 61.4.1.1 Ionic Alginate Gels 61.4.1.2 Alginic Acid Gels 81.4.2 Molecular Weight 81.4.3 Solubility and Viscosity 81.4.4 Ionic Cross-Linking 91.4.5 Chemical Properties 91.5 Sources 111.6 Biosynthesis of Bacterial Alginate 111.6.1 Precursor Synthesis 121.6.2 Polymerization and Cytoplasmic Membrane Transfer 131.6.3 Periplasmic Transfer and Modification 151.6.3.1 Transacetylases 151.6.3.2 Mannuronan C 5-Epimerases 161.6.3.3 Lyases 161.6.5 Export through the Outer Membrane 161.7 Conclusion 16Acknowledgment 17Conflict of Interests 17References 172 Alginates Production, Characterization and Modification 21Pintu Pandit, T. N. Gayatri and Baburaj Regubalan2.1 Introduction 222.2 Alginate: Production 242.2.1 Screening of Alginate-Producing Microbes 242.2.2 Production of Alginate by Bacteria 252.2.3 Production of Alginate by Pseudomonas 262.2.4 Production of Alginate by Azotobacter spp. 262.2.5 Influence of Medium Components 262.2.5.1 Effect of Nutrients on Bacterial Alginate Production 262.2.5.2 Effect of Phosphate on Bacterial Alginate Production 272.2.5.3 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen on Bacterial Alginate Production 272.2.5.4 Effect of Agitation in the Medium for the Production of Alginate 272.2.6 Commercial Production of Alginate 282.3 Characterization of Physicochemical Properties of Alginate 282.3.1 Composition of Alginate Polymer Chains 292.3.2 XRD, FTIR, and NMR Spectroscopy for Alginate Structure Analysis 312.3.3 Rheology and Mechanical Characterization of Alginate Gels and Solutions 322.4 Modification of Alginates 332.4.1 Chemical Modification 332.4.2 Oxidation 342.4.3 Sulfation 342.4.4 Phosphorylation 352.4.5 Graft Copolymerization 352.4.6 Esterification 352.4.7 Carbodiimide Coupling 362.4.8 Covalent Cross-Linking 362.5 Future Perspectives 382.6 Conclusions 39References 393 Alginate: Recent Progress and Technological Prospects 45Tanvir Arfin and Kamini Sonawane3.1 Introduction 453.2 Structure 463.3 Sources 473.4 Characteristics of Alginate Salts 483.5 Properties 483.6 Applications 503.7 Future Perspectives 533.8 Advantages 543.9 Disadvantages 543.10 Conclusion 54Acknowledgments 55References 554 Alginate Hydrogel and Aerogel 59Ajith James Jose, Kavya Mohan and Alice Vavachan4.1 Introduction 594.2 Alginate Hydrogel 604.2.1 Preparation of Alginate Hydrogels 614.2.1.1 Ionic Cross-Linking 624.2.1.2 Covalent Cross-Linking 624.2.1.3 Thermal Gelation 624.2.1.4 Cell Cross-Linking 634.2.2 Biomedical Applications 634.2.2.1 Pharmaceutical Applications 634.2.3 Tissue Regeneration with Protein and Cell Delivery 684.2.3.1 Blood Vessels 684.2.3.2 Bones 694.2.3.3 Cartilage 694.2.3.4 Muscle, Nerve, Pancreas, and Liver 704.3 Alginate Aerogel 704.3.1 Properties of Alginate Aerogels 714.3.1.1 Bulk Density and Pore Volume 714.3.1.2 Specific Surface Area 714.3.1.3 Compressibility 714.3.1.4 Thermal Conductivity and Absorption 724.3.2 Preparative Methods 724.4 Future Perspectives 73References 73Part 2: Alginates in Biomedical Applications 795 Alginate in Biomedical Applications 81Luiz Pereira da Costa5.1 Introduction 815.2 Chemical Structure and Properties of Alginate 835.3 Types of Interaction of Alginate 845.4 Biomedical Application of Alginates 875.5 Future Perspective of the Use and Biomedical Applications 90References 906 Alginates in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Application: A Critique 95Vivek Dave, Kajal Tak, Chavi Gupta, Kanika Verma and Swapnil Sharma6.1 Introduction 956.2 Structure of Alginate 966.3 Different Types of Alginates Used in Pharmaceutical Industries 976.4 Properties of Alginate 986.5 Pathway for the Biosynthesis of Alginate 986.6 Regulatory Consideration of Alginate 1006.7 Applications 1006.7.1 Other Applications 1136.8 Conclusion 114References 1157 Alginates in Evolution of Restorative Dentistry 125S.C. Onwubu, P.S. Mdluli, S. Singh and Y. Ngombane7.1 Introduction 1257.2 Method of Alginate Extraction 1267.3 Evolution of Alginate in Restorative Dentistry 1287.3.1 Problems with Conventional Alginate 1297.3.2 Current Trends and Modification of Alginate 1297.3.2.1 Extended Pour Time Alginate 1307.3.2.2 Dust-Free Alginates 1307.3.2.3 Infection-Free Alginates 1327.3.2.4 High Viscosity Alginates 1327.3.2.5 Alginates in Two Pastes Form 1337.3.2.6 Tray Adhesive Alginates 1337.4 The Art of Impression Taking Using Alginates 1337.4.1 Selection of Impression Trays 1347.4.2 Mixing and Loading Alginates 1357.4.3 Preparation of the Oral Cavity before Impression Taking 1357.4.4 Impression Taking Using Alginate Material 1367.4.5 Removal and Inspection of Alginate Material 1377.4.6 Effects of Cast Production Techniques 1377.5 Conclusions 138References 1388 Alginates in Drug Delivery 141Srijita Basumallick8.1 Introduction 1418.2 Chemistry of Alginates 1428.2.1 Hydrogel Formation by Alginates 1438.2.1.1 Preparation of Hydrogel 1438.3 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Chemistry of Alginates 1448.3.1 Factors Governing Drug Encapsulation and Drug Delivery Processes 1458.3.1.1 Delivery and Encapsulation of Small Drugs 1458.3.1.2 Macromolecular Drug Delivery by Alginates 1488.4 Conclusions 149Acknowledgments 149References 1499 Alginate in Wound Care 153Satyaranjan Bairagi and S. Wazed Ali9.1 Introduction 1549.2 Sources and Synthesis of Alginate 1549.3 Physicochemical Properties of the Alginate Biopolymer 1569.4 Biomedical Applications of Alginate 1579.4.1 Alginate in Wound Care 1589.4.1.1 Pure Alginate Polymer-Based Wound Dressing 1609.4.1.2 Intercellular Mediators Incorporated Alginate Polymer-Based Wound Dressing 1609.4.1.3 Zinc/Alginate- and Silver/Alginate-Based Wound Dressing 1619.4.1.4 Chitosan/Alginate- and Collagen/Alginate-Based Wound Dressing 1639.4.1.5 Alginate Fiber-Based Wound Dressing 1639.4.1.6 Alginate Hydrogel-Based Wound Dressing 1679.5 Opportunities and Future Thrust 172References 17310 Alginate-Based Biomaterials for Bio-Medical Applications 179Reena Antil, Ritu Hooda, Minakshi Sharm and Pushpa Dahiya10.1 Introduction 18010.2 Alginate: General Properties 18010.2.1 Chemical Properties, Structure, and Characterization 18110.3 Extraction and Preparation 18210.3.1 Gelation and Cross-Linking of Alginate 18310.3.2 Ionic Cross-Linking 18410.3.3 External Gelation 18410.3.4 Internal Gelation 18510.3.5 Covalent Cross-Linking 18510.3.6 Large Bead Preparation 18610.3.7 Microbead Preparation 18610.4 Alginate Hydrogels 18710.5 Photocross-Linking 18810.6 Shape-Memory Alginate Scaffolds 18810.7 Biodegradation of Alginate 18910.8 Biomedical Application of Alginates 19010.8.1 Controlled Chemical and Protein Drug Delivery 19010.8.2 Wound/Injury Dressings 19310.8.3 Cell Culture 19410.8.4 Tissue Regeneration 195References 196Part 3: Alginates in Food Industry 20511 Alginates for Food Packaging Applications 207Radhika Theagarajan, Sayantani Dutta, J.A. Moses and C. Anandharamakrishnan11.1 Introduction 20711.2 Biopolymer in Food Industry 20811.3 Alginates in Food Packaging 20911.4 Biosynthesis of Alginate 21311.5 Application of Alginate in Formation of Biofilm 21511.5.1 Preparation of Packaging Films 21511.5.2 Role of Alginate in Biofilm Formation 21511.6 Packaging Properties of Alginate 21711.6.1 Thermostability of Alginate Packaging 21811.6.2 Water Solubility 21811.6.3 Water Vapor Permeability 21811.6.4 Tensile Strength 21811.6.5 Oxygen Permeability 21911.6.6 Barrier Property 21911.6.7 Antimicrobial Activity 21911.7 Effect of Alginate on the Quality of Food 22211.8 Interaction between Food and Alginates 22311.9 Environmental Effects on Alginate Packaging 22411.10 Market Outlook 22411.11 Conclusion 225References 22612 Potential Application of Alginates in the Beverage Industry 233S. Vijayalakshmi, S.K. Sivakamasundari, J.A. Moses and C. Anandharamakrishnan12.1 Introduction 23312.2 Alginate Source 23412.3 Extraction of Alginates 23512.4 Physical, Chemical and Functional Properties of Alginate 23612.5 Uses as a Food Additive/Ingredient 24112.6 Alginate as Stabilizer 24512.7 As Encapsulating Wall Material 24712.7.1 Immobilization of Biocatalysts 24912.7.2 Probiotics 25012.7.3 Improvement of the Alginate Encapsulation: Prebiotics Addition 25312.8 Conclusion 254References 25413 Alginates in Comestibles 263Ashwini Ravi, S. Vijayanand, Velu Rajeshkannan, S. Aisverya, K. Sangeetha, P.N. Sudha and J. Hemapriya13.1 Introduction 26413.2 Alginates in Agricultural Marketing 26513.3 Use of Alginates in Food Industry 26613.3.1 Thickeners and Gelling Agents 26713.3.2 Stabilizers and Emulsifiers 26813.3.3 Texturizers 26913.3.4 Encapsulation 26913.3.5 Food Coating 27013.4 Use of Alginates for Pets 27113.5 Effect of Dietary Alginates 27113.6 Alginate Safety 27213.7 Conclusion 272References 272Part 4: Alginates Future Prospects 28114 Alginates: Current Uses and Future Perspective 283Ashwini Ravi, S. Vijayanand, G. Ramya, A. Shyamala, Velu Rajeshkannan, S. Aisverya, P.N. Sudha and J. Hemapriya14.1 Introduction 28414.2 Sources of Alginate Synthesis 28514.2.1 Brown Seaweeds 28514.2.2 Bacteria 28714.3 Synthesis of Alginate 28814.3.1 Alginate Biosynthesis Gene 28914.4 Properties of Alginates 29014.4.1 Molecular Weight 29014.4.2 Solubility 29114.4.3 Stability 29114.4.4 Ionic Binding Property 29214.4.5 Gel Formation Ability 29314.4.6 Biological Properties 29314.5 Application of Alginates 29414.6 Future Perspectives of Alginates 29514.6.1 3D-Based Cell Culture Systems 29514.6.2 Impressions 29614.6.3 Cell-Based Microparticles 29614.6.4 Alginate Oligosaccharides 29814.6.5 Drug Targeting 29914.6.6 Nanoparticulate Systems 30014.7 Conclusion 300References 300Index 313