Aircraft Systems

PROF. CHRIS BINNS is an Emeritus professor at the Department of Physics and Astronomy with the University of Leicester,??UK. Currently he is a??flight instructor and continues to teach engineers at universities in Greece and in the UK.

• Acknowledgments xiiiAbout the Companion Website xv1 Historical Development 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The Advent of Instrument Flight 21.3 Development of Flight Instruments Based on Air Pressure 51.3.1 The Altimeter 51.3.2 The Vertical Speed Indicator (Variometer) 71.3.3 The Airspeed Indicator 81.4 Development of Flight Instruments Based on Gyroscopes 101.5 Development of Aircraft Voice Communications 121.6 Development of Aircraft Digital Communications 191.6.1 Communication Via Satellite (SATCOM) 191.6.2 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 201.6.3 Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) 231.7 Development of Radio Navigation 241.7.1 Radio Direction Finding 241.7.2 Guided Radio Beam Navigation 281.7.3 VHF/UHF Radio Navigation Systems 311.8 Area and Global Navigation Systems 401.8.1 Hyperbolic Navigation 401.8.2 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) 441.8.3 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 481.8.4 Combining Systems: Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 531.9 Development of Auto Flight Control Systems 57References 652 Pressure Instruments 672.1 Layers of the Atmosphere 672.2 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 682.3 Nonstandard Atmospheres 722.4 Dynamic Pressure and the Bernoulli Equation 732.5 Definition of Sea Level and Elevation 772.6 Definition of Height, Altitude, and Flight Level 772.7 Pitot and Static Sources 802.8 Pressure Altimeter 812.8.1 Basic Principles of the Pressure Altimeter 812.8.2 Altimeter Display 862.8.3 Servo Altimeter 892.8.4 Altimeter with Digital Encoder 912.9 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) 932.9.1 Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) 982.10 Airspeed Indicator 1002.11 Mach Meter 1052.11.1 Critical Mach Number 1052.11.2 Direct-Reading Mach Meter 1072.12 OAT Probe 1092.12.1 Ram Rise and Total Air Temperature 1092.12.2 Direct-Reading Thermometer for Low Airspeeds 1102.12.3 Resistance Thermometer Probes 1102.13 Pitot–Static Systems 1132.14 Air Data Computer (ADC) 1172.14.1 Altitude and Vertical Speed 1172.14.2 TAS and Mach number in Compressible Flow 1172.14.3 ADC Inputs and Outputs 119Problems 121References 1213 Gyroscopic and Magnetic Instruments 1233.1 Mechanical Gyroscopes and Instruments 1233.1.1 Basic Properties of Mechanical Gyroscopes 1233.1.2 Gyroscope Wander 1243.1.3 Labeling of Aircraft Axes and Rotations 1253.1.4 Types of Gyroscope 1263.1.5 Power for Gyroscopic Instruments 1263.1.6 Direction Indicator (DI) 1273.1.7 Earth Rate 1293.1.8 Transport Wander 1313.1.9 Attitude Indicator (AI) 1343.1.10 Turn and Slip Indicator and Turn Coordinator 1383.2 Solid-State Gyroscopes 1413.2.1 The Advantages of Solid-State Gyroscopes 1413.2.2 The Sagnac Effect 1413.2.3 Fiber-Optic Gyroscope 1423.2.4 Ring Laser Gyroscope 1433.2.5 Micro-Electromechanical System (MEMS) Gyroscopes 1463.2.6 MEMS Accelerometers 1483.3 Magnetic Compass 1493.3.1 Terrestrial Magnetism 1493.3.2 Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass 1513.3.3 Flux Gate Sensor 1563.3.4 Miniature Magnetometers 1593.4 Attitude Heading and Reference System (AHRS) 1613.5 Sensor Fusion 162Problems 163References 1654 Radio Propagation and Communication 1674.1 Basic Properties of Radio Waves 1674.2 Propagation of Radio Waves 1694.2.1 Attenuation 1694.2.2 Non-Ionospheric Propagation 1714.2.2.1 Surface (or Ground) Wave: 20 kHz to 50 MHz (LF–HF) 1714.2.2.2 Space (or Direct) Wave: >50 MHz (VHF) 1724.2.3 Ionospheric Propagation (Skywaves) 1734.2.3.1 Origin of the Ionosphere 1734.2.3.2 Reflection and Absorption of Radio Waves by the Ionosphere 1764.2.3.3 Ducting Propagation of Very Low Frequency (VLF) Waves 1784.3 Transmitters, Receivers, and Signal Modulation 1784.3.1 Basic Continuous Wave Morse Code Transmitter/Receiver 1784.3.2 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation of Carrier 1804.3.3 Superheterodyne Receivers and Demodulation of QAM Signals 1824.3.4 Amplitude Modulated (AM) Transmission 1844.3.5 Channel Spacing in the VHF Band for AM Voice Transmission 1874.3.6 Frequency Modulation 1894.3.7 Modulation for Digital Data Transmission 1934.3.7.1 Pulsed Modulation 1934.3.7.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 1934.3.7.3 Binary Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (BCPFSK) 1964.3.8 ITU Codes for Radio Emissions 1984.4 Antennas 1984.4.1 Basic Antenna Theory 1984.4.2 Resonant Half-Wave Dipole and Quarter-Wave Monopole Antennas for VHF and UHF 2064.4.3 Effect of Ground and Airframe on Radiation Pattern 2114.4.4 Feeders, Transmission Lines, Impedance Matching, and Standing Wave Ratio 2124.4.5 HF Antennas for Sky wave Communications 2154.4.6 Low-Frequency Small Loop Antenna 2154.4.7 Directional Antennas in the VHF and UHF Bands 2164.4.7.1 Yagi–Uda Antenna 2174.4.7.2 Log-Periodic Antenna 2194.4.8 Directional Antennas in the SHF Band 2204.4.8.1 Waveguides as Feeders 2204.4.8.2 Horn Antenna 2224.4.8.3 Parabolic Dish Antenna 2264.4.8.4 Slotted Array 2294.4.8.5 Patch or Micro strip Antenna 2314.5 VHF Communications System 2334.6 Long-Range HF Communications System 2374.6.1 Coverage and Frequency Bands 2374.6.2 Selective Calling (SELCAL) 2404.6.3 HF Ground Station Network 2404.6.4 HF Data Link (HFDL) 2424.7 Satellite Communications 2424.8 Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) 245Problems 247References 2485 Primary and Secondary Radar 2495.1 Primary Radar 2495.2 Ground Radar 2575.3 Airborne Weather Radar 2585.4 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) 2725.4.1 Mode A and Mode C Interrogation Pulses 2735.4.2 Mode A Reply from the Aircraft 2745.4.3 Mode C Reply from the Aircraft 2755.4.4 Conflicts Between Mode A and Mode C Replies from Different Aircraft 2765.4.5 Mode S 2765.4.6 Mode S All Call Interrogation 2775.4.7 Mode S Selective Call Interrogation 2785.4.8 Mode S Reply from Aircraft 2795.4.9 Traffic Surveillance by Mode S 2805.4.10 Squitters and Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) 2815.4.11 Universal Access Transceivers (UAT) and ADS-B 2835.4.12 Surveillance by ADS-B 2865.5 Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 2885.6 Radio Altimeter 291Problems 293References 2946 General Principles of Navigation 2956.1 Coordinate Reference System for the Earth 2956.1.1 Latitude and Longitude 2956.1.2 Great Circle Routes, Rhumb Lines, and Departure 2976.2 Compass Heading, Variation, and Deviation 3026.3 Aviation Charts 3056.3.1 General Chart Properties: Chart Scale, Orthomorphism, and Conformality 3056.3.2 Chart Projections 3086.3.2.1 Mercator Projection 3086.3.2.2 Conical Projection 3116.3.2.3 Gnomic and Polar Stereographic Projection 3136.4 Non-Sphericity of the Earth and the WGS84 Model 3156.5 Navigation by Dead Reckoning 3196.5.1 Calculating the True Airspeed 3206.5.2 Calculating the Heading and Ground Speed in a Known Wind 3216.5.3 Pilot Log for a Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Navigation 3246.5.4 Correcting Track Errors 327Problems 331References 3327 Short-Range Radio Navigation 3337.1 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 3347.1.1 Principle of Operation 3347.1.2 ADF Cockpit Instrumentation 3367.2 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) 3427.2.1 Principle of Operation 3427.2.2 Conventional VOR (CVOR) 3447.2.3 Doppler VOR (DVOR) 3487.2.4 VOR Cockpit Instrumentation 3517.2.5 VOR Track Errors 3547.2.6 Airways System Defined by VORs 3587.2.7 Area Navigation (RNAV) 3607.3 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 3657.4 Instrument Landing System (ILS) 3667.4.1 ILS Localizer 3677.4.2 ILS Glide Slope 3757.4.3 ILS Cockpit Instrumentation 3787.4.4 Categories of ILS 3797.5 Microwave Landing System (MLS) 381Problems 383References 3858 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 3878.1 Basic Principle of Satellite Navigation 3878.2 The Constellation of Space Vehicles (SVs) 3898.2.1 Orbital Radius of the GPS Constellation 3898.2.2 Orbital Arrangement for Optimal Coverage by the GPS Constellation 3918.3 Transmissions by the GPS SVs 3958.3.1 GPS Time and UTC 3958.3.2 Transmission Channels 3968.3.3 Construction of the C/A Code 3988.3.4 Multiplexed Decoding of the Navigation Message 4008.3.5 Format of the Navigation Message 4058.3.6 Precision P(Y) Code 4138.3.7 Additional GPS Signals 4138.3.7.1 L2C Signal 4148.3.7.2 L5 Safety of Life Signal 4158.3.7.3 L1C Signal 4168.3.7.4 L3 and L4 Signals 4168.4 Control Segment 4198.5 Sources of GPS Errors 4218.5.1 Geometric Dilution of Position 4218.5.2 Ionospheric Propagation Error 4218.5.3 Other Sources of Error 4238.6 Relativity Corrections Required for GPS 4248.7 Augmentation Systems 4258.7.1 Wide Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS) 4258.7.2 Local Area Augmentation Systems (LAAS) 4268.7.3 Aircraft-Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS) and Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) 4268.8 GPS Cockpit Instrumentation 4288.9 Spoofing, Meaconing, and Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) Resilience 430Problems 430References 4319 Inertial Navigation and Kalman Filtering 4339.1 Basic Principle of Inertial Navigation 4339.2 Gimbaled Systems 4359.2.1 Stabilized Platforms 4359.2.2 Obtaining Latitude and Longitude 4369.2.3 Correcting the Platform Orientation for Earth Rate and Transport Wander 4379.2.4 Initializing the Platform 4399.3 Strapdown Systems 4409.4 Accelerations Not due to Changes in Aircraft Motion 4429.5 Schüler Oscillations 4439.6 Earth-Loop Oscillations 4459.7 Summary of Inertial Guidance Errors 4459.7.1 Sensor Bias 4469.7.2 Random Walk Position Error Produced by Sensor Noise 4479.7.3 Environmental Factors 4479.7.4 True Wander 4489.8 Cockpit Instrumentation 4499.9 Kalman Filter 4519.9.1 Basic Principle of the Kalman Filter 4519.9.2 Kalman Filter for One-Dimensional (Single Value) Data 4549.9.3 Kalman Filtering of Multiple values 455Problems 460References 461Appendix A Radiation from Wire Antennas 463Appendix B Theory of Transmission Lines and Waveguides 475Appendix C Effective Aperture of a Receiving Antenna 481Appendix D Acronyms 485Index 489