Age Estimation in the Living

Professor Sue Black, OBE BSc PhD DSc FRSE, Head of Anatomy and Forensic Anthropology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Scotland, UKProfessor Sue Black is one of the worlds leading experts in Forensic Anthropology. She has received many accolades throughout her distinguished professional career including an OBE presented by Her Britannic Majesty for services to Forensic Anthropology in 2001. Professor Black developed the first undergraduate training course in forensic anthropology and the first postgraduate course in human identification in the UK. She is very well known to the media and has taken part in several television, radio and other media related programmes.Professor Anil Aggrawal, Professor of Forensic Medicine, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, IndiaProfessor Aggrawal is also founder and Editor-in-Chief of Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. The journal is in its 8th year of publication and draws more than 2000 visitors daily from all over the world.Jason Payne-James, Forensic Healthcare Services Ltd, Essex, UKJason Payne James is a forensic physician appointed as a Forensic Medical Examiner to the Metropolitan Police Service and City of London Police. His work embraces four main areas drawing on his extensive medical, legal, forensic and education/writing expertise — legal and clinical forensic aspects of medicine; clinical nutrition; gastroenterology. He is a prolific author/writer. Jason Payne James established a company, with others; Forensic Healthcare Services Ltd (www.forensic-healthcare.com) a company providing expert witnesses (www.experts4law.com) for the criminal and civil systems and other bodies, and which also provides training in these areas.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xvGlossary of Abbreviations xvii1 An Introduction to the History of Age Estimation in the Living 1Andreas Schmeling and Sue Black1.1 Introduction 11.2 Dental Development 31.3 Skeletal Maturation 51.4 Secondary Sexual Development 81.5 Conclusion 10References 122 Immigration, Asylum Seekers and Undocumented Identity 19Heather Law, Lorraine Mensah, Sue Bailey and Julia Nelki2.1 Asylum Seeker to Refugee 26References 283 Clinical and Legal Requirements for Age Determination in the Living 30Philip Beh and Jason Payne-James3.1 Introduction 303.2 Contrasts between Age Assessment in the Living and the Deceased 313.3 Reasons for Age Estimation of Bodies and Human Remains 323.4 Reasons for Age Estimation of Living Individuals 323.5 Assessment Techniques 373.6 How Age May Be Specifically Documented 373.7 Birth Certificates 383.8 Identity Cards 383.9 Driving Licence 383.10 Passports 393.11 Age Verification Cards 403.12 Other Documents 403.13 Medical Issues 403.13.1 Duties to Examinee 403.14 Communication 413.15 Summary and Conclusions 41References 424 Legal Implications of Age Determination: Consent and Other Issues 43George Fernie and Jason Payne-James4.1 Introduction 434.2 Principles of Practice 444.3 Duties of the Examining Practitioner 474.4 Criminal Issues in Age Determination in the Living 484.5 Practical Implications 514.6 Summary 53References 545 The Challenges of Psychological Assessments of Maturity 55Julia Nelki, Pete Grady, Sue Bailey and Heather Law5.1 Introduction 555.1.1 Current Status in the UK 575.2 Need for Determination of Maturity 585.3 Psychological Maturity as a Concept 595.3.1 Child Development 605.3.2 Middle Childhood 615.3.3 Adolescence 625.3.4 Ethical Framework 635.4 Current Practice 655.5 Suggestions for a Framework for Good Practice 675.5.1 Setting 685.6 Summary and Conclusion 69Appendix 5.A Proposed Framework, Based on Common Assessment Framework (Department of Schools Families and Children, 2007) 69References 746 Principles of Physical Age Estimation 77Sue Black and George Maat6.1 Intra-uterine Growth and Development 796.2 Birth and Infancy 826.3 Childhood 836.4 Juvenile 856.5 Adolescence 856.6 Adult 866.7 Senescence 876.8 Summary 886.9 Growth Studies 89References 917 Growth, Maturation and Age 95Noël Cameron and Laura L. Jones7.1 Growth, Maturation and Age 957.1.1 The Concept of Time 957.1.2 Maturity Indicators 987.1.3 Maturational Variation 997.1.4 Uneven Maturation 997.1.5 Sexual Dimorphism 1007.1.6 Maturity and Size 1007.2 Assessment of Maturation 1017.2.1 Skeletal Maturity 1017.2.2 Dental Maturity 1017.2.3 Secondary Sexual Development 1027.2.4 Independence of Methods 1027.3 Secular Trends 1027.4 Worldwide Variation in the Timing of Maturation 1047.4.1 Secondary Sexual Development 1047.4.2 Dental Development 1097.4.3 Skeletal Development 1097.5 Factors Associated with the Timing of Maturation 1127.5.1 Genetic Variability 1127.5.2 Demographic Factors 1137.5.3 Biological Factors 1147.5.4 Environmental Factors 1167.6 Summary 120References 1208 Practical Imaging Techniques for Age Evaluation 130Andreas Schmeling, Sven Schmidt, Ronald Schulz, Andreas Olze, Walter Reisinger and Volker Vieth8.1 Introduction 1308.2 Radiation Exposure in X-ray Examinations for the Purpose of Age Estimation 1318.3 Radiological Examination of the Hand 1338.4 Radiological Examination of the Teeth 1388.5 Radiological Examination of the Clavicles 1428.6 Summary and Conclusions 144References 1459 External Soft Tissue Indicators of Age from Birth to Adulthood 150Anil Aggrawal, Puneet Setia, Avneesh Gupta, and Anthony Busuttil9.1 Growth Patterns 1519.2 Anthropometric Parameters in Children 1519.2.1 Growth Charts 1529.2.2 Developmental Milestones 1599.2.2.1 Head Control 1599.2.2.2 Rolling 1599.2.2.3 Sitting 1609.2.2.4 Gross Motor 1609.2.2.5 Fine Motor 1619.2.2.6 Social and cognitive 1619.2.2.7 Speech and language 1629.3 Pubertal Changes 1629.3.1 Stages of Pubic Hair Development Derived from Tanner (1962) 1639.3.1.1 Pubic Hair Development in Males 1649.3.1.2 Pubic Hair Development in Females 1649.3.2 Stages of Axillary Hair Development Derived from Tanner (1962) 1649.3.3 Stages of Development of Male Genitalia Derived from Tanner (1962) 1669.3.3.1 Testicular Volume 1669.3.3.2 Age of First Erection and Ejaculation 1679.3.4 Stages of breast development as derived from Tanner (1962) 1689.3.5 Age of Menarche 1689.4 Areas of New Research 1709.5 Conclusion 170References 17110 Age Evaluation and Odontology in the Living 176Jane Taylor and Matthew Blenkin10.1 Introduction 17610.2 Overview of the Development of the Dentition 17710.3 Techniques of Dental Age Estimation 17910.4 The Sub-adult Dentition 18010.4.1 Sub-adult: Physical/Anatomical 18010.4.1.1 Tooth Counts 18010.4.2 Sub-adult: Radiographic 18210.4.2.1 Atlas Style Techniques 18210.4.2.2 Techniques Employing Measurement 18410.4.3 Sub-adult: Destructive 18710.4.3.1 Histological Techniques 18710.4.3.2 Aspartic Acid Racemization 18710.5 The Adult Dentition 18710.5.1 Adult: Physical 18810.5.1.1 Tooth Wear 18810.5.2 Adult: Radiographic 18810.5.2.1 Third Molars 18910.5.2.2 Secondary Dentine Apposition 19010.5.3 Adult: Destructive 19110.5.3.1 The Gustafson Method 19110.5.3.2 Root Transparency 19110.5.3.3 Amino Acid Racemization and Histological Techniques 19110.6 Summary 191References 19311 Age Evaluation from the Skeleton 202S. Lucina Hackman, Alanah Buck and S. Black11.1 Background 20211.2 Fetal Age 20411.3 Birth 20811.4 Juvenile/Child 21011.5 Age Estimation from the Skeleton in Living Adults 22111.6 Medial Clavicle 22211.7 Sternal Ribs and Costal Cartilages 22311.8 Pelvis 22411.9 Skull Sutural Closure 22411.10 Laryngeal Cartilages 22511.11 Other General Ageing Features 22611.12 Summary 226References 22612 Age Evaluation after Growth Cessation 236Anil Aggrawal, Puneet Setia, Avneesh Gupta and Anthony Busuttil12.1 Background 23612.2 Consent 23712.3 Radiology 23712.3.1 Pubic Bones 23912.3.2 Long Bones 24212.3.3 Skull Sutures 24312.3.4 Costal Cartilages 24612.3.4.1 Sternum 24612.3.5 Vertebrae 24712.3.6 Laryngeal Cartilages 25012.4 Odontology 25012.5 Soft Tissues of Face 25112.6 Genetics in Age Estimation 25212.7 Physiological and Biochemical Parameters for Age Estimation 25312.8 Areas of Future Research 25412.8.1 Small Long Bones 25412.8.2 Scapula 25412.8.3 Others 25412.8.4 Histology 25612.9 Conclusion 257References 25713 The Presentation of Results and Statistics for Legal Purposes 267David Lucy13.1 Introduction 26713.2 Evidence and Intelligence 26913.3 Statistical Methods in Age Estimation 27013.4 Classical, or Frequentist, Approaches 27113.5 Bayesian Approaches 27113.6 The Relevance to Age Estimation 27213.7 Likelihood Ratio Approaches 27413.8 Errors of Interpretation 27913.9 Concluding Comments 280Appendix 13.A Age-Related Data from Gustafson (1950) 281References 28214 Key Practical Elements for Age Estimation in the Living 284Sue Black, Jason Payne-James and Anil Aggrawal14.1 The Four Pillars of Age Estimation 28614.1.1 Pillar 1: Social and Psychological Evaluation 28614.1.2 Pillar 2: External Estimation of Age 28614.1.3 Pillar 3: Skeletal Estimation of Age 28814.1.4 Pillar 4: Dental Estimation of Age 28914.2 Conclusion 290Index 291

"I strongly recommend this book to anyone interested in human growth and development, or any of the many factors that influence the timing of human maturation." (The American Journal of Human Biology, 2012)"All in all, a very useful book. I would highly recommend this book not only to all forensic physicians, but to everyone practicing in this field. I would imagine that his book would be highly useful for lawyers, police, medical and dental practitioners, forensic scientists. I would also recommend this book to all undergraduate and postgraduate law and medical students preparing for forensic medicine examinations." (Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 1 January 2011) "The book is of value by advising not only what can or should be done in certain situations, but by also stating what ought not to be done . . . this publication will, I believe be of great value to the many professionals engaged in this field world wide, and will also be an excellent reference tool." (Internet Law Book Reviews, 2011)"Medical researchers explain some of the approaches used to estimate the age of people who for some reason or another do not know their age, or who are trying to conceal their age. They begin by setting out the nature of the problem, in chapters on immigration, asylum seekers, and undocumented identity; clinical and legal requirements for age determination in the living; and consent issues and other legal implications of age determination. Then they consider biological matters such as challenges of the psychological assessment of maturity; principles of physical age estimation; growth, maturation, and age; practical imaging techniques for age estimation; external soft tissue indicators of age from birth to adulthood; odontology in the living; the skeleton; age evaluation after growth cessation; presenting results and statistics for legal purposes; and key practical elements for age estimation in the living. (Annotation ©2011 Book News Inc. Portland, OR)" (Reference and Research Book News, February 2011)"I would recommend this book to any individual that was responsible for determining age of subjects for legal requirements. The authors have created a very organized text to aid in verifying scientific methods used in age determination. I thank the authors for going the extra mile and creating such a complete text for use in forensic investigations." (Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, January 2011)"This subject area of Age Assessment in the Living needed this book; it fills a void in the field to a very high standard." (King's College London, January 2011)