Activated Carbon for Water and Wastewater Treatment

Ferhan Cecen is currently a professor at the Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University in Istanbul, where she received a B.Sc.degree in chemical engineering. She gained her M.Sc .and Ph.D. degrees in environmental engineering from Istanbul Technical University. She has published extensively on the nitrification, denitrification, biological and advanced treatment of industrial wastewaters, adsorption of pollutants from water and wastewater, as well as on the biodegradation of hazardous pollutants, and the impact of heavy metals and organochlorine compounds on activated sludge and biofilm systems. Over the past decade, her research has focused on the integration of adsorption with biological treatment processes in both wastewater and water treatment.Özgür Aktas is currently a researcher at the Environment Institute of TUBITAK Marmara Research Center. Previously he was a research assistant at the Institute of Environmental Sciences in Bogazici University. He received his B.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering and M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Environmental Technology from the Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University in Istanbul. His research focuses on activated carbon adsorption in biological processes and bioregeneration of activated carbon in these combined systems.

• Preface xviiList of Abbreviations xxiAcknowledgement xxvii1 Water and Wastewater Treatment: Historical Perspective of Activated Carbon Adsorption and its Integration with Biological Processes 1Ferhan Çeçen1.1 Historical Appraisal of Activated Carbon 11.2 General Use of Activated Carbon 31.3 Application of Activated Carbon in Environmental Pollution 41.3.1 Activated Carbon in Drinking Water Treatment 41.3.2 Activated Carbon in Wastewater Treatment 51.3.3 Applications of Activated Carbon in Other Environmental Media 71.3.4 Integration of Activated Carbon Adsorption with Biological Processes in Wastewater and WaterTreatment 71.3.5 Improved Control of Pollutants through Integrated Adsorption and Biological Treatment 82 Fundamentals of Adsorption onto Activated Carbon in Water and Wastewater Treatment 13Özgür Aktas and Ferhan Çeçen2.1 Activated Carbon 132.1.1 Preparation of Activated Carbons 132.1.2 Characteristics of Activated Carbon 142.1.3 Activated Carbon Types 152.2 Adsorption 162.2.1 Types of Adsorption 162.2.2 Factors Influencing Adsorption 182.2.3 Kinetics of Adsorption 222.2.4 Adsorption Equilibrium and Isotherms 242.2.5 Single- and Multisolute Adsorption 272.3 Activated Carbon Reactors in Water and Wastewater Treatment 302.3.1 PAC Adsorbers 302.3.2 GAC Adsorbers 302.4 Activated Carbon Regeneration and Reactivation 373 Integration of Activated Carbon Adsorption and Biological Processes in Wastewater Treatment 43Ferhan Çeçen and Özgür Aktas3.1 Secondary and Tertiary Treatment: Progression from Separate Biological Removal and Adsorption to Integrated Systems 433.1.1 Activated Carbon in Secondary Treatment 463.1.2 Activated Carbon in Tertiary Treatment 463.2 Fundamental Mechanisms in Integrated Adsorption and Biological Removal 473.2.1 Main Removal Mechanisms for Organic Substrates 473.2.2 Main Interactions between Organic Substrates, Biomass, and Activated Carbon 543.2.3 Behavior and Removal of Substrates in Dependence of their Properties 593.3 Integration of Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) into Biological Wastewater Treatment 593.3.1 Positioning of GAC Reactors in Wastewater Treatment 593.3.2 Recognition of Biological Activity in GAC Reactors 633.3.3 Conversion of GAC into Biological Activated Carbon (BAC) 643.3.4 Main Processes in BAC Reactors 663.3.5 Types of GAC Reactors with Biological Activity (BAC Reactors) 673.4 Integration of Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) into Biological Wastewater Treatment 693.4.1 Single-Stage Continuous-Flow Aerobic PACTs Process 703.4.2 Sequencing Batch PACT Reactors 733.4.3 Anaerobic PACT Process 743.5 Biomembrane Operation Assisted by PAC and GAC 743.5.1 Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) 743.5.2 The PAC-MBR Process 753.5.3 Membrane-Assisted Biological GAC Filtration – the BioMAC Process 763.6 Observed Benefits of Integrated Systems 763.6.1 Enhancement of Organic Carbon Removal by Activated Carbon 783.6.2 Enhancement of Nitrification by Activated Carbon 783.6.3 Enhancement of Denitrification by Activated Carbon 803.6.4 Effect of Activated Carbon Addition on Inorganic Species 803.6.5 Enhancing Effects of Activated Carbon in Anaerobic Treatment 813.6.6 Properties of Biological Sludge in the Presence of Activated Carbon 813.6.7 Effect of PAC on Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) 823.7 Regeneration of PACT and BAC Sludges 864 Effect of Activated Carbon on Biological Treatment of Specific Pollutants and Wastewaters: Laboratory- and Pilot-Scale Studies 95Özgür Aktas and Ferhan Çeçen4.1 Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters 954.1.1 Pharmaceutical Wastewaters 954.1.2 Paper and Pulp Wastewaters 974.1.3 Petroleum Refinery and Petrochemical Wastewaters 984.1.4 Textile Wastewaters 994.1.5 Other Industrial Wastewaters 1004.2 Removal of Specific Chemicals 1044.2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1044.2.2 Phenols 1064.2.3 Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) 1094.2.4 Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 1094.2.5 Priority Pollutants 1094.2.6 Dyes 1104.2.7 Organic Pollutants in Secondary Sewage Effluents 1114.2.8 Other Chemicals 1124.3 Landfill Leachate Treatment 1134.3.1 Leachate Treatment in PAC-added Activated Sludge Systems 1144.3.2 Leachate Treatment Using the PAC-MBR Process 1184.3.3 Leachate Treatment in Biological Activated Carbon (BAC) Media 1185 Combination of Activated Carbon with Biological Wastewater Treatment at Full Scale 127Özgür Aktas and Ferhan Çeçen5.1 Full-Scale PACT Systems 1275.1.1 Full-Scale PACT for Industrial Effluents 1285.1.2 PACT for Co-treatment of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters 1365.1.3 PACT for Landfill Leachates 1365.1.4 PACT for Contaminated Groundwaters 1385.1.5 PACT for Reuse of Domestic Wastewaters 1395.1.6 PACT for Contaminated Surface Runoff Waters 1395.2 Biological Activated Carbon (BAC) Filtration at Full Scale 1405.2.1 BAC Filtration for Reuse Purposes 1406 Modeling the Integration of Adsorption with Biological Processes in Wastewater Treatment 145Ferhan Çeçen6.1 Modeling of GAC Adsorbers with Biological Activity 1456.1.1 Introduction 1456.1.2 Fundamental Processes around a Carbon Particle Surrounded by a Biofilm 1466.1.3 Benefits of Integrated Adsorption and Biological Removal: Link to Fundamental Processes 1556.1.4 Modeling Approaches in GAC/BAC Reactors 1586.1.5 Prevalent Models in BAC Reactors Involving Adsorption and Biodegradation 1736.2 Modeling of the PACT Process 1786.2.1 Mass Balances in the PACT Process 1786.2.2 Mass Balance for PAC in the PACT Process 1786.2.2.1 Determination of Biomass or Carbon Concentration in a PACT Sludge 1806.2.3 Models Describing Substrate Removal in the PACT Process 1817 Bioregeneration of Activated Carbon in Biological Treatment 189Özgür Aktas and Ferhan Çeçen7.1 Mechanisms of Bioregeneration 1897.1.1 Bioregeneration Due to Concentration Gradient 1897.1.2 Bioregeneration Due to Exoenzymatic Reactions 1917.1.3 Bioregeneration Due to Acclimation of Biomass 1937.2 Offline Bioregeneration 1947.3 Concurrent (Simultaneous) Bioregeneration in PACT and BAC Systems 1957.4 Dependence of Bioregeneration on the Reversibility of Adsorption 1957.5 Other Factors Affecting Bioregeneration 1987.5.1 Biodegradability 1997.5.2 Chemical Properties of Substrate 2007.5.3 Carbon Particle Size 2007.5.4 Carbon Porosity 2017.5.5 Carbon Activation Type 2027.5.6 Physical Surface Properties of Carbon 2027.5.7 Desorption Kinetics 2037.5.8 Substrate–Carbon Contact Time 2037.5.9 Concentration Gradient and Carbon Saturation 2047.5.10 Biomass Concentration 2057.5.11 Dissolved Oxygen Concentration 2067.5.12 Microorganism Type 2067.5.13 Substrate and Biomass Associated Products of Biodegradation 2077.5.14 Presence of Multiple Substrates 2087.6 Determination of Bioregeneration 2097.6.1 Investigation of the Extent of Reversible Adsorption 2117.6.2 Use of Adsorption Isotherms 2117.6.3 Direct Measurement by Using Adsorption Capacities 2137.6.4 Direct Measurement by Solvent Extraction 2137.6.5 Quantification of Bioregeneration in Simultaneous Adsorption–Biodegradation 2137.6.6 Measurement of Biodegradation Products 2147.6.7 Use of Respirometry in Aerobic Systems 2157.6.8 Investigation by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 2167.7 Bioregeneration in Anaerobic/Anoxic Systems 2167.8 Models Involving Bioregeneration of Activated Carbon 2177.8.1 Modeling of Bioregeneration in Concurrent Adsorption and Biodegradation 2187.8.2 Modeling of Bioregeneration in Single Solute Systems 2207.8.3 Modeling of Bioregeneration in Multicomponent Systems 2257.8.4 Modeling of Offline Bioregeneration 2287.8.5 Modeling the Kinetics of Bioregeneration 2288 Combination of Activated Carbon Adsorption and Biological Processes in Drinking Water Treatment 237Ferhan Çeçen8.1 Introduction 2378.2 Rationale for Introduction of Biological Processes in Water Treatment 2388.3 Significance of Organic Matter in Water Treatment 2388.3.1 Expression and Fractionation of Organic Matter 2398.4 Removal of NOM in Conventional Water Treatment 2448.4.1 Rationale for NOM Removal 2448.4.2 Extent of NOM Removal 2458.5 Use of Activated Carbon in Water Treatment 2468.5.1 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) Addition 2468.5.2 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Filtration 2478.6 Biological Activated Carbon (BAC) Filtration 2478.6.1 History of BAC Filtration in Water Treatment 2478.6.2 Combination of Ozonation and BAC Filtration 2498.6.3 Current Use of BAC Filtration in Water Treatment 2498.7 Adsorption and Biodegradation Characteristics of Water 2508.7.1 Raw Water NOM 2508.7.2 Impact of Ozonation on NOM Characteristics 2508.7.3 Determination of Adsorption and Biodegradation Characteristics of Water 2559 Removal of NOM, Nutrients, and Micropollutants in BAC Filtration 265Ferhan Çeçen9.1 Removal of Organic Matter 2659.1.1 Main Mechanisms 2659.1.2 Breakthrough Curves 2659.1.3 Bioregeneration of BAC Filters 2729.2 Factors Affecting the Performance of BAC Filtration 2739.2.1 Comparison of GAC with Other Media 2739.2.2 Importance of GAC Grade 2749.2.3 Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) and Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) 2749.2.4 Filter Backwashing 2769.2.5 Effect of Temperature 2769.2.6 Effect of Oxidant Residuals 2779.3 Performance of BAC Filters: Organics Removal 2779.4 Performance of BAC Filters: Nutrient Removal 2859.4.1 Nitrification in BAC Filters 2859.4.2 Denitrification in BAC Filters 2869.5 Removal of Micropollutants from Drinking Water in BAC Systems 2889.5.1 Occurrence of Organic Micropollutants in Water 2889.5.2 Competition Between Background NOM and Organic Micropollutants 2889.5.3 Adsorption of Organic Micropollutants onto Preloaded GAC 2909.5.4 Effect of GAC Characteristics on Adsorption 2909.5.5 Adsorption and Biological Removal of Organic Micropollutant Groups in BAC Filtration 2919.5.6 Removal of Precursors and Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) in BAC Filtration 2949.6 Removal of Ionic Pollutants in BAC Filtration 2989.6.1 Nitrate Removal 2989.6.2 Bromate Removal 2989.6.3 Perchlorate Removal 3019.7 Integration of PAC and GAC into Biological Membrane Operations 3029.7.1 Effect of PAC on Membrane Bioreactors 3029.7.2 BAC Filtration Preceding Membrane Bioreactor Operation 3039.8 Integration of GAC into Groundwater Bioremediation 3039.9 Biomass Characteristics in BAC Filtration 3049.9.1 Microbial Ecology of BAC Filters 3049.9.2 Control of Biofilm Growth in BAC Filters 3059.9.3 Determination of Biomass and Microbial Activity in BAC Filters 3059.9.4 Determination of Microorganisms by Classical and Molecular Microbiology Methods 3069.9.5 Microbiological Safety of Finished Water 30910 BAC Filtration Examples in Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants 319Ferhan Çeçen10.1 Limits for BDOC and AOC as Indicators of Re-growth Potential in Water Distribution 31910.2 BAC Filtration Experiences in Full-Scale Surface Water Treatment 32010.2.1 Mu¨lheim Plants, Germany 32010.2.2 Leiden Plant, Amsterdam, the Netherlands 32010.2.3 Plants in the Suburbs of Paris, France 32210.2.4 Ste Rose Plant in Quebec, Canada 32310.2.5 Plant in Zürich-Lengg, Switzerland 32310.2.6 Weesperkarspel Plant, Amsterdam, the Netherlands 32410.2.7 Drinking Water Treatment Plants, Bendigo, Castlemaine, and Kyneton, Victoria, Australia 32610.3 New Approaches in the Evaluation of Ozonation and BAC Filtration 32710.4 BAC Filtration Experiences in Full-Scale Groundwater Treatment 32711 Review of BAC Filtration Modeling in Drinking Water Treatment 331Ferhan Çeçen11.1 Substrate Removal and Biofilm Formation 33111.2 Modeling of BAC Filtration 33311.2.1 Models Emphasizing Biological Processes in Biofilters 33411.2.2 Models Integrating Adsorption and Biological Processes 34211.2.3 Models Describing the Removal of Micropollutants 34612 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook 353Ferhan Çeçen and Özgür Aktas12.1 Overview of Applications in Wastewater and Water Treatment: PACT and BAC Systems 35312.2 Further Research on Removal Mechanisms and Micropollutant Elimination 35512.2.1 Wastewater Treatment 35512.2.2 Drinking Water Treatment 35812.3 Further Research on Regeneration of Activated Carbon 36012.3.1 Importance of Activated Carbon Grade 36012.3.2 Bioregeneration of Activated Carbon 36112.3.3 Physicochemical Regeneration of Biological Activated Carbon 363Index 365