4Ds of Energy Transition

Dr Muhammad Asif is a Professor at the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. He is Charted Engineer, Certified Energy Manager, and Member of the Energy Institute. He has 20 years of teaching and research experience. His research interests include renewable energy, energy policy, energy security, sustainable buildings, and life cycle assessment. He has authored/edited six books and has published over 100 journal and conference papers.

• Preface xvAcknowledgement xviForeword xvii1 Introduction to the Four-Dimensional Energy Transition 1Muhammad Asif1.1 Energy: Resources and Conversions 11.2 Climate Change in Focus 31.3 The Unfolding Energy Transition 41.4 The Four Dimensions of the Twenty-First Century Energy Transition 61.4.1 Decarbonization 71.4.2 Decentralization 71.4.3 Digitalization 81.4.4 Decreasing Energy Use 81.5 Conclusions 8References 9Part I Decarbonization 112 Global Energy Transition and Experiences from China and Germany 13Heiko Thomas and Bing Xue2.1 Global Energy Transition 132.2 China 172.2.1 How to Achieve Carbon Neutrality Before 2060 and Keep the World’s Largest Economy Running 172.2.2 China as the World’s Leader in Renewable Installations 192.2.3 Particular Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions 202.3 Germany 232.3.1 Climate Action and GHG Emission Reduction Targets 232.3.2 System Requirements to Achieve the GHG Emission Reduction Goals 242.3.3 Potential for GHG Emission Reduction in the Building Sector 272.3.4 Underachieving in the Transport Sector 272.3.5 A New Emission Trading Scheme Specifically Tackles the Heating and Transport Sectors 292.4 Comparing Energy Transitions in China and Germany 302.4.1 Different Strategies and Boundary Conditions 302.4.2 Comparing the Mobility Sector 322.4.3 Policy Instruments and Implementation 332.5 Summary and Final Remarks 37References 383 Decarbonization in the Energy Sector 41Muhammad Asif3.1 Decarbonization 413.2 Decarbonization Pathways 423.2.1 Renewable Energy 433.2.1.1 Solar Energy 433.2.1.2 Wind Power 443.2.1.3 Hydropower 443.2.2 Electric Mobility 443.2.3 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 453.2.4 Energy Storage 463.2.5 Energy Efficiency 463.2.6 Decarbonization of Fossil Fuel Sector 463.3 Decarbonization: Developments and Trends 47References 484 Renewable Technologies: Applications and Trends 51Muhammad Asif4.1 Introduction 514.2 Overview of Renewable Technologies 524.2.1 Solar Energy 524.2.1.1 Solar PV 524.2.1.2 Solar Thermal Energy 544.2.2 Wind Power 574.2.3 Hydropower 584.2.3.1 Dam/Storage 594.2.3.2 Run-of-the-River 594.2.3.3 Pumped Storage 594.2.4 Biomass 604.2.5 Geothermal Energy 614.2.6 Wave and Tidal Power 624.3 Renewables Advancements and Trends 634.3.1 Market Growth 634.3.2 Economics 654.3.3 Technological Advancements 654.3.4 Power Density 674.3.5 Energy Storage 674.4 Conclusions 69References 695 Fundamentals and Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 73Bengt Sundén5.1 Introduction 735.2 Hydrogen – General 745.2.1 Production of Hydrogen 745.2.2 Storage of Hydrogen 755.2.3 Transportation of Hydrogen 765.2.4 Concerns About Hydrogen 765.2.5 Advantages of Hydrogen Energy 765.2.6 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy 765.3 Basic Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics 775.4 Fuel Cells – Overview 785.4.1 Types of Fuel Cells 795.4.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) or Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFC) 835.4.2.1 Performance of a PEMFC 835.4.3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 835.4.4 Comparison of PEMFCs and SOFCs 845.4.5 Overall Description of Basic Transport Processes and Operations of a Fuel Cell 855.4.5.1 Electrochemical Kinetics 855.4.5.2 Heat and Mass Transfer 855.4.5.3 Charge and Water Transport 865.4.5.4 Heat Generation 875.4.6 Modeling Approaches for Fuel Cells 875.4.6.1 Softwares 895.4.7 Fuel Cell Systems and Applications 905.4.7.1 Portable Power 905.4.7.2 Backup Power 915.4.7.3 Transportation 915.4.7.4 Stationary Power 925.4.7.5 Maritime Applications 935.4.7.6 Aerospace Applications 945.4.7.7 Aircraft Applications 955.4.8 Bottlenecks for Fuel Cells 955.5 Conclusions 97Acknowledgments 97Nomenclature 97Abbreviations 98References 996 Decarbonizing with Nuclear Power, Current Builds, and Future Trends 103Hasliza Omar, Geordie Graetz, and Mark Ho6.1 Introduction 1036.2 The Historic Cost of Nuclear Power 1046.3 The Small Modular Reactor (SMR): Could Smaller Be Better? 1096.3.1 New Nuclear Reactor in Town 1096.3.2 Is It the Smaller the Better? 1106.4 Evaluating the Economic Competitiveness of SMRs 1136.4.1 Size Matters 1136.4.2 Construction Time 1136.4.3 Co-siting Economies 1146.4.4 Learning Rates 1156.4.5 The Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE): Is It a Reliable Measure? 1186.4.6 The Overnight Capital Cost (OCC): SMRs vs. a Large Reactor 1206.5 Nuclear Energy: Looking Beyond Its Perceived Reputation 1236.5.1 Load-Following and Cogeneration 1236.5.2 Industrial Heat (District and Process) 1256.5.3 Hydrogen Production 1276.5.4 Seawater Desalination 1306.6 Western Nuclear Industry Trends 1316.6.1 The United States 1316.6.2 The United Kingdom 1326.6.3 Canada 1356.7 Conclusions 137References 1417 Decarbonization of the Fossil Fuel Sector 153Tian Goh and Beng Wah Ang7.1 Introduction 1537.2 Technologies for the Decarbonization of the Fossil Fuel Sector 1547.2.1 Historical Developments 1547.2.2 Hydrogen Economy 1557.2.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 1567.3 Recent Advancements and Potential 1577.3.1 Carbon Capture and Storage 1587.3.2 Carbon Capture and Utilization 1587.4 Future Emission Scenarios and Challenges to Decarbonization 1607.4.1 Application in Future Emission Scenarios 1607.4.2 Challenges to Decarbonization 1647.5 Controversies and Debates 1677.5.1 Opposing Narratives 1677.5.2 Public Perceptions 1697.6 Conclusions 171References 1728 Electric Vehicle Adoption Dynamics on the Road to Deep Decarbonization 177Emil Dimanchev, Davood Qorbani, and Magnus Korpås8.1 Introduction 1778.2 Current State of Electric Vehicles 1788.2.1 Electric Vehicle Technology 1788.2.2 Electric Vehicle Environmental Attributes 1798.2.3 Competing Low-Carbon Vehicle Technologies 1808.3 Contribution of Road Transport to Decarbonization Policy 1818.3.1 State and Trends of CO2 Emissions from Transportation and Passenger Vehicles 1818.3.2 Decarbonization of Transport 1828.3.3 Decarbonization Pathways for Passenger Vehicles and the Role of Electric Vehicles 1838.4 Dynamics of Vehicle Fleet Turnover 1908.4.1 Illustrative Fleet Turnover Model 1908.4.2 Implications of Fleet Turnover Dynamics for Meeting Decarbonization Targets 1918.5 Electric Vehicle Policy 1948.5.1 Case Study of Electric Vehicle Policy in Norway 1958.6 Prospects for Electric Vehicle Technology and Economics 1968.7 Conclusions 199References 2009 Integrated Energy System: A Low-Carbon Future Enabler 207Pengfei Zhao, Chenghong Gu, Zhidong Cao, and Shuangqi Li9.1 Paradigm Shift in Energy Systems 2079.2 Key Technologies in Integrated Energy Systems 2109.2.1 Conversion Technologies 2119.2.1.1 Combined Heat and Power 2119.2.1.2 Heat Pump and Gas Furnace 2119.2.1.3 Power to Gas 2119.2.1.4 Gas Storage 2129.2.1.5 Battery Energy Storage Systems 2129.2.2 Energy Hub Systems 2139.2.3 Modeling of Integrated Energy Systems 2149.3 Management of Integrated Energy Systems 2159.3.1 Optimization Techniques for Integrated Energy Systems 2159.3.1.1 Stochastic Optimization 2159.3.1.2 Robust Optimization 2159.3.1.3 Distributionally Robust Optimization 2179.3.2 Supply Quality Issues 2179.3.2.1 Voltage Issues 2179.3.2.2 Gas Quality Issues 2189.4 Volt–Pressure Optimization for Integrated Energy Systems 2199.4.1 Research Gap 2199.4.2 Problem Formulation 2209.4.2.1 Day-Ahead Constraints of VPO 2209.4.2.2 Real-Time Constraints of VPO 2229.4.2.3 Objective Function of Two-Stage VPO 2229.4.3 Results and Discussions 2239.4.3.1 Studies on VVO 2239.4.3.2 Studies on Economic Performance 2279.4.3.3 Studies on Gas Quality Management 2289.5 Conclusions 229A Appendix: Nomenclature 230A.1 Indices and Sets 230A.2 Parameters 230A.3 Variables and Functions 232References 233Part II Decreasing Use 23910 Decreasing the Use of Energy for Sustainable Energy Transition 241Muhammad Asif10.1 Why Decrease the Use of Energy? 24110.2 Energy Efficiency Approaches 24310.2.1 Change of Attitude 24310.2.2 Performance Enhancement 24410.2.3 New Technologies 24410.3 Scope of Energy Efficiency 244References 24511 Energy Conservation and Management in Buildings 247Wahhaj Ahmed and Muhammad Asif11.1 Energy and Environmental Footprint of Buildings 24711.2 Energy-Efficiency Potential in Buildings 24811.3 Energy-Efficient Design Strategies 25011.3.1 Passive and Active Design Strategies 25111.3.2 Energy Modeling to Design Energy-Efficient Strategies 25111.4 Building Energy Retrofit 25511.4.1 Building Energy-Retrofit Classifications 25611.4.1.1 Pre- and Post-Retrofit Assessment Strategies 25611.4.1.2 Number and Type of EEMs 25711.4.1.3 Modeling and Design Approach 25811.5 Sustainable Building Standards and Certification Systems 26011.6 Conclusions 261References 26112 Methodologies for the Analysis of Energy Consumption in the Industrial Sector 267Vincenzo Bianco12.1 Introduction 26712.2 Overview of Basic Indexes for Energy Consumption Analysis 26912.2.1 Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) 26912.2.2 Energy Consumption Elasticity (ECE) 27012.2.3 Energy Intensity (EI) 27012.2.4 Linear Correlation Index (LCI) 27112.2.5 Weather Adjusting Coefficient (WAC) 27112.3 Decomposition Analysis of Energy Consumption 27212.4 Case Study: The Italian Industrial Sector 27412.4.1 Index-Based Analysis 27412.4.2 Decomposition of Energy Consumption 27612.5 Relationship Between Energy Efficiency and Energy Transition 28312.6 Conclusions 284References 285Part III Decentralization 28713 Decentralization in Energy Sector 289Muhammad Asif13.1 Introduction 28913.2 Overview of Decentralized Generation Systems 29013.2.1 Classification 29013.2.2 Technologies 29213.3 Decentralized and Centralized Generation – A Comparison 29313.3.1 Advantages of Decentralized Generation 29313.3.1.1 Cost-Effectiveness 29313.3.1.2 Enhanced Energy Access 29313.3.1.3 Environment Friendliness 29413.3.1.4 Security 29413.3.1.5 Reliability 29413.3.1.6 Peak Shaving 29413.3.1.7 Supply Resilience 29413.3.1.8 New Business Streams 29413.3.1.9 Other Benefits 29513.3.2 Disadvantages of Decentralized Generation 29513.3.2.1 Power Quality 29513.3.2.2 Effect on Gird Stability 29513.3.2.3 Energy Storage Requirement 29513.3.2.4 Institutional Resistance 29513.4 Developments and Trends 295References 29614 Decentralizing the Electricity Infrastructure: What Is Economically Viable? 299Moritz Vogel, Marion Wingenbach, and Dierk Bauknecht14.1 Introduction 29914.2 Decentralization of Electricity Systems 30014.3 Technological Dimensions of Decentralization 30114.3.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 30214.3.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 30214.3.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 30214.3.4 Level of Optimization 30314.4 Decentralization: Costs and Benefits 30314.4.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 30414.4.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 30514.4.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 30614.4.4 Level of Optimization 30714.5 Germany’s Decentralization Experience: A Case Study 31014.5.1 System Cost 31014.5.2 Grid Expansion 31414.5.3 Key Findings 31614.6 How Far Should Decentralization Go? 31714.6.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 31714.6.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 31714.6.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 31914.6.4 Level of Optimization 31914.7 Conclusions 320References 32015 Governing Decentralized Electricity: Taking a Participatory Turn 325Marie Claire Brisbois15.1 Introduction 32515.2 How Is Decentralization Affecting Traditional Modes of Electricity Governance? 32615.2.1 Sticking Points for Shifting to Decentralized Governance 32715.3 What Kinds of Governance Does Decentralization Require? 32815.3.1 Security 32815.3.2 Affordability 32915.3.3 Sustainability 33115.4 What Do We Know About Decentralized Governance from Other Spheres? 33215.4.1 Nested, Multilevel Governance of Common Pool Resources 33315.4.2 Key Components of Common Pool Resource Governance 33415.4.2.1 Roles and Responsibilities 33415.4.2.2 Policy Coherence 33515.4.2.3 Capacity Development 33615.4.2.4 Transparent and Open Data 33615.4.2.5 Appropriate Regulations 33715.4.2.6 Stakeholder Participation 33815.5 Moving Toward a Decentralized Governance System 33915.5.1 Phase One 33915.5.2 Phase Two 34015.5.3 Phase Three 34115.6 Conclusions 341References 342Part IV Digitalization 34716 Digitalization in Energy Sector 349Muhammad Asif16.1 Introduction 34916.2 Overview of Digital Technologies 35016.2.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 35016.2.2 Blockchain 35116.2.3 Robotics and Automated Technologies 35116.2.4 Internet of Things 35116.2.5 Big Data and Data Analytics 35216.3 Digitalization: Prospects and Challenges 352References 35417 Smart Grids and Smart Metering 357Haroon Farooq, Waqas Ali, and Intisar A. Sajjad17.1 Introduction 35717.2 Grid Modernization and Its Need in the Twenty-First Century 35817.3 Smart Grid 36017.4 Smart Grid vs. Traditional Grid 36217.5 Smart Grid Composition and Architecture 36217.6 Smart Grid Technologies 36517.7 Smart Metering 36717.8 Role of Smart Metering in Smart Grid 36917.9 Key Challenges and the Future of Smart Grid 37017.10 Implementation Benefits and Positive Impacts 37217.11 Worldwide Development and Deployment 37317.12 Conclusions 375References 37618 Blockchain in Energy 381Bernd Teufel and Anton Sentic18.1 Transformation of the Electricity Market and an Emerging Technology 38118.2 Blockchain in the Energy Sector 38218.2.1 Defining Blockchain 38318.2.2 Utilizing Blockchain in Energy Systems 38518.2.3 Case Examples for Blockchain Energy 38618.2.4 Utilization of Blockchain Energy: Introducing an Innovation Perspective 38718.3 Blockchain as a (Disruptive) Innovation in Energy Transitions 38918.3.1 Transition Studies, Regimes, and Niche Innovations 38918.3.2 Blockchain Technologies Between Niche Innovation and the Socio-Technical System 39018.4 Conclusions and Venues for Further Inquiry 392Acknowledgment 394References 394Epilogue 399Fereidoon SioshansiIndex 405