Isotopes

GUNTER FAURE is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geological Sciences at The Ohio State University. TERESA M. MENSING is associate professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at The Ohio State University at Marion.

• Preface xxvPart I Principles of Atomic Physics 11 Nuclear Systematics 31.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 31.2 Internal Structure of Atoms 41.3 Origin of the Elements 121.4 Summary 14References 142 Decay Modes of Radionuclides 152.1 Beta-Decay 152.2 Alpha-Decay 242.3 Spontaneous and Induced Fission 282.4 Summary 33References 333 Radioactive Decay 343.1 Law of Radioactivity 343.2 Radiation Detectors 373.3 Growth of Radioactive Daughters 393.4 Units of Radioactivity and Dosage 423.5 Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation 433.6 Sources of Environmental Radioactivity 463.7 Nuclear Reactions 473.8 Neutron Activation Analysis 473.9 Summary 53References 534 Geochronometry 554.1 Growth of Radiogenic Daughters 554.2 Assumptions for Dating 574.3 Fitting of Isochrons 604.4 Mass Spectrometry and Isotope Dilution 644.5 Summary 71References 71Part II Radiogenic Isotope Geochronometers 735 The Rb–Sr Method 755.1 Geochemistry of Rb and Sr 755.2 Principles of Dating 765.3 Rb–Sr Isochrons 805.4 Dating Metamorphic Rocks 895.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 955.6 Summary 106References 1076 The K–Ar Method 1136.1 Principles and Methodology 1136.2 Retention of 40Ar by Minerals 1156.3 K–Ar Isochrons 1206.4 Volcanic Rocks of Tertiary Age 1216.5 Dating Sedimentary Rocks 1266.6 Metamorphic Veil 1326.7 Precambrian Timescales 1346.8 Summary 138References 1387 The 40Ar*/ 39Ar Method 1447.1 Principles and Methodology 1447.2 Incremental Heating Technique 1477.3 Excess 40Ar 1517.4 Argon Isotope Correlation Diagram 1537.5 Laser Ablation 1577.6 Sedimentary Rocks 1597.7 Metasedimentary Rocks 1627.8 Metamorphic Rocks: Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia 1667.9 Thermochronometry: Haliburton Highlands, Ontario, Canada 17.10 Summary 171References 1728 The K–Ca Method 1808.1 Principles and Methodology 1808.2 Isotope Geochemistry of Calcium 1838.3 Summary 190References 1919 The Sm–Nd Method 1949.1 Geochemistry of Sm and Nd 1949.2 Principles and Methodology 1979.3 Dating by the Sm–Nd Method 2029.4 Meteorites and Martian Rocks 2079.5 Lunar Rocks 2099.6 Summary 211References 21110 The U–Pb, Th–Pb, and Pb–Pb Methods 21410.1 Geochemistry of U and Th 21410.2 Decay of U and Th Isotopes 21510.3 Principles and Methodology 21810.4 U,Th–Pb Dates, Boulder Creek Batholith, Colorado 22110.5 Wetherill’s Concordia 22310.6 Alternative Pb Loss Models 22710.7 Refinements in Analytical Methods 23010.8 Dating Detrital Zircon Grains 23310.9 Tera–Wasserburg Concordia 23610.10 U–Pb, Th–Pb, and Pb–Pb Isochrons (Granite Mountains, Wyoming) 24010.11 Pb–Pb Dating of Carbonate Rocks 24210.12 U–Pb and Th–Pb Isochrons of Carbonate Rocks 24510.13 Summary 249References 25011 The Common-Lead Method 25611.1 The Holmes–Houtermans Model 25611.2 Dating Common Lead 26111.3 Dating K-Feldspar 26811.4 Anomalous Leads in Galena 27011.5 Lead–Zinc Deposits, Southeastern Missouri 27411.6 Multistage Leads 27911.7 Summary 280References 28112 The Lu–Hf Method 28412.1 Geochemistry of Lu and Hf 28412.2 Principles and Methodology 28612.3 CHUR and Epsilon 28812.4 Model Hf Dates Derived from CHUR 28912.5 Applications of Lu–Hf Dating 29012.6 Summary 294References 29413 The Re–Os Method 29713.1 Rhenium and Osmium in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Rocks 29713.2 Principles and Methodology 30113.3 Molybdenite and 187Re–187Os Isochrons 30213.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Os 30513.5 The Cu–Ni Sulfide Ores, Noril’sk, Siberia 31013.6 Origin of Other Sulfide Ore Deposits 31213.7 Metallic PGE Minerals 31313.8 Gold Deposits of the Witwatersrand, South Africa 31413.9 The Pt–Os Method 31613.10 Summary 317References 31714 The La–Ce Method 32214.1 Geochemistry of La and Ce 32314.2 Principles and Methodology 32414.3 La–Ce Isochrons 32714.4 Meteorites and CHUR-Ce 32914.5 Volcanic Rocks 33114.6 Cerium in the Oceans 33214.7 Summary 337References 33815 The La–Ba Method 34015.1 Geochemistry of La and Ba 34015.2 Principles and Methodology 34115.3 Amitsoq Gneiss, West Greenland 34215.4 Mustikkamaki Pegmatite, Finland 34315.5 Summary 343References 343Part III Geochemistry of Radiogenic Isotopes 34516 Mixing Theory 34716.1 Chemical Compositions of Mixtures 34716.2 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr 35016.3 Isotopic Mixtures of Sr and Nd 35216.4 Three-Component Isotopic Mixtures 35516.5 Applications 35616.6 Summary 361References 36117 Origin of Igneous Rocks 36317.1 The Plume Theory 36317.2 Magma Sources in the Mantle 36417.3 Midocean Ridge Basalt 36517.4 Basalt and Rhyolite of Iceland 36917.5 The Hawaiian Islands 37517.6 HIMU Magma Sources of Polynesia 38017.7 Subduction Zones 38217.8 Continental Flood Basalt 38917.9 Alkali-Rich Lavas 39417.10 Origin of Granite 39917.11 Summary 405References 40618 Water and Sediment 41218.1 Strontium in Streams 41218.2 Sediment in Streams 41918.3 Zaire and Amazon Rivers 42618.4 Summary 433References 43319 The Oceans 43619.1 Strontium in the Phanerozoic Oceans 43619.2 Strontium in the Precambrian Oceans 44719.3 Neodymium in the Oceans 45119.4 Lead in the Oceans 46319.5 Osmium in Continental Runoff 47019.6 Osmium in the Oceans 47519.7 Hafnium in the Oceans 48019.8 Summary 486References 487Part IV Short-Lived Radionuclides 49520 Uranium/Thorium-Series Disequilibria 49720.1 238U/234U–230Th-Series Geochronometers 49820.2 Radium 50820.3 Protactinium 51620.4 Lead-210 52120.5 Archeology and Anthropology 52720.6 Volcanic Rocks 53120.7 Magma Formation 53520.8 Summary 539References 54021 Helium and Tritium 54621.1 U–Th/He Method of Dating 54621.2 Thermochronometry 55121.3 He Dating of Iron-Ore Deposits 55421.4 Tritium–3He Dating 55521.5 Meteorites and Oceanic Basalt 56021.6 Continental Crust 56621.7 Summary 571References 57222 Radiation-Damage Methods 57722.1 Alpha-Decay 57722.2 Fission Tracks 58022.3 Applications of Fission-Track Dates 59222.4 Thermoluminescence 59522.5 Electron-Spin Resonance 60322.6 Summary 606References 60823 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 61323.1 Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon) 61423.2 Beryllium-10 and Aluminum-26 (Atmospheric) 62523.3 Exposure Dating (10Be and 26Al) 63323.4 Cosmogenic and Thermonuclear 36Cl 63923.5 Meteorites 64123.6 Other Long-Lived Cosmogenic Radionuclides 64623.7 Summary 646References 64724 Extinct Radionuclides 65424.1 The Pd–Ag Chronometer 65524.2 The Al–Mg Chronometer 65724.3 The Hf–W Chronometer 65924.4 FUN in the Solar Nebula 66224.5 Summary 663References 66425 Thermonuclear Radionuclides 66725.1 Fission Products and Transuranium Elements 66725.2 Strontium-90 in the Environment 67225.3 Cesium-137 in the Environment 67825.4 Arctic Ocean: 90Sr/137Cs, 239,240Pu, and 241Am 68225.5 Summary 686References 687Part V Fractionation of Stable Isotopes 69126 Hydrogen and Oxygen 69326.1 Atomic Properties 69326.2 Mathematical Relations 69526.3 Meteoric Precipitation 69726.4 Paleothermometry (Carbonates) 70426.5 Silicate Minerals and Rocks 70926.6 Water–Rock Interactions (Rocks) 71426.7 Water–Rock Interactions (Water) 71826.8 Clay Minerals 72526.9 Marine Carbonates 72726.10 Marine Phosphates 73026.11 Biogenic Silica and Hydroxides of Fe and Al 73526.12 Chert (Phanerozoic and Precambrian) 73626.13 Extraterrestrial Rocks 73826.14 Summary 743References 74427 Carbon 75327.1 Biosphere 75427.2 Life in the Precambrian Oceans 75727.3 Fossil Fuel 76127.4 Carbon-Isotope Stratigraphy (Phanerozoic) 76327.5 Precambrian Carbonates 76827.6 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 77427.7 Extraterrestrial Carbon 78527.8 Search for Life on Mars 79027.9 Summary 792References 79328 Nitrogen 80328.1 Geochemistry 80328.2 Isotope Fractionation 80528.3 Nitrogen on the Surface of the Earth 80628.4 Fossil Fuels 80828.5 Igneous Rocks and the Mantle 81128.6 Ultramafic Xenoliths 81228.7 Diamonds 81328.8 Meteorites 81528.9 Moon 81728.10 Mars 81828.11 Summary 820References 82029 Sulfur 82429.1 Isotope Geochemistry 82429.2 Biogenic Isotope Fractionation 82529.3 Sulfur in Recent Sediment 82729.4 Fossil Fuels 82829.5 Native Sulfur Deposits 83029.6 Sedimentary Rocks of Precambrian Age 83129.7 Isotopic Evolution of Marine Sulfate 83329.8 Igneous Rocks 83529.9 Sulfide Ore Deposits 84029.10 Sulfur in the Environment 84329.11 Mass-Independent Isotope Fractionation 84629.12 Summary 847References 84930 Boron and Other Elements 85430.1 Boron 85530.2 Lithium 85930.3 Silicon 86330.4 Chlorine 86830.5 Postscript 870References 870Index 875International Geological Timescale (2002) 897