Introduction to Distance Measurement in Astronomy

Richard de Grijs, Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, China.

• Preface xi 1 The Importance of Astrophysical Distance Measurements 11.1 The Distance to the Galactic Centre 21.1.1 Early Determinations of R0 31.1.2 Modern Results 61.2 The Distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud 111.3 Benchmarks Beyond the Magellanic Clouds: the 3D Universe on Large(r) Scales 15Bibliography 222 The Solar Neighbourhood 312.1 Geometric Parallax Measurements 312.1.1 Trigonometric Parallax 312.1.2 Astrometric Advances: Space-Based Missions and Interferometry 332.1.3 Secular and Statistical Parallaxes: Moving Groups Method 392.2 Dynamical Parallax 422.2.1 Mass–Luminosity Relations 462.3 Spectroscopic and Photometric Parallaxes 50Bibliography 553 From the MilkyWay to the Local Group 633.1 Basic Stellar Physics as the Key to Understanding Distance Measurementsto Local Group Galaxies 633.1.1 Stellar Evolution Through the Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram 633.1.2 From Two to Multiple Stellar Populations 683.2 Open and Globular Cluster Hertzsprung–Russell Diagrams 703.2.1 Main-Sequence and Subdwarf Fitting 703.2.2 Red Clump Stars 723.2.3 The (Zero-Age) Horizontal Branch Level 743.3 Giants and Supergiants as Standard Candles 763.3.1 The Tip of the Red Giant Branch 763.3.2 The Red Giant Branch Bump 783.3.3 Supergiants as Standard Candles 803.4 White Dwarf Sequences 833.5 Period–Density Relations 843.5.1 The Baade–Wesselink Method 853.5.2 Classical Cepheid Variables 873.5.3 Mira Variables 903.5.4 W Virginis and Other ‘Population II’ Cepheids 933.5.5 RR Lyrae Stars 953.5.6 Dwarf and Anomalous Cepheids 973.6 Novae as Standard Candles 983.7 Geometric Methods 1003.7.1 Planetary Nebula Expansion Parallaxes 1013.7.2 Supernova Light Echoes 1023.7.3 Eclipsing Binary Stars 1063.7.4 Maser-Based Distance Determinations 1083.8 Pulsars: Distance Measurements Outside the ‘Classical’ Wavelength Range 110Bibliography 1144 Reaching Virgo Cluster Distances and Beyond 1354.1 The Hubble Space Telescope Key Project 1354.2 Surface Brightness Fluctuations 1364.3 The Globular Cluster Luminosity Function 1404.3.1 Elliptical Versus Spiral Galaxy GCLFs 1414.3.2 The Stellar Population Mix 1444.3.3 GCLF and GCMF Universality Through Dynamical Evolution 1444.4 The Planetary Nebulae Luminosity Function 1484.4.1 Applicability 1494.4.2 Physical Basis 1504.5 The Tully–Fisher Relation 1514.5.1 Wavelength Dependence 1524.5.2 The Scatter in the Tully–Fisher Relation 1544.6 Distance Indicators Specific to Elliptical Galaxies 1564.7 The Colour–Magnitude Relation 1614.8 Hii Regions as Distance Indicators? 164Bibliography 1655 From Nearby Galaxy Clusters to Cosmological Distances 1755.1 Cosmological Redshifts 1755.1.1 Determination of the Current Expansion Rate of the Universe 1755.1.2 Redshift Surveys and Peculiar Velocities 1765.1.3 The Prevailing Cosmological Model 1795.2 Supernovae as Beacons 1865.2.1 Type Ia Supernovae 1885.2.2 Type II-P Supernovae 1975.2.3 A Link to Gamma-Ray Bursts as Standard Candles? 2075.3 Indirect Techniques to Measure H0 2105.3.1 Gravitational Lensing: Time Delays 2105.3.2 The Sunyaev–Zel’dovich Effect 2155.3.3 Anisotropies in the Cosmic Microwave Background 2225.3.4 The Drive for Improved Accuracy 225Bibliography 2276 Systematic Uncertainties and Common Pitfalls 2436.1 Common Biases 2446.1.1 Extinction: Spatial Distribution and Wavelength Dependence 2446.1.2 Parallaxes: Lutz–Kelker Bias 2466.1.3 Malmquist Bias 2516.2 High Versus Low Values of the Hubble Constant: Science or Philosophy? 255Bibliography 2597 Promises and Prospects 2677.1 The Way Forward: Where Are Significant Gains Achievable? 2677.2 The Pleiades Distance Controversy 2707.3 X-Ray Scattering Haloes 2737.4 Standard Sirens: Listening to Gravitational Waves 2767.5 Three-Dimensional Mapping of Redshifted Neutral Hydrogen 2807.6 The Present-Day Distance Ladder 283Bibliography 285Glossary 293Figure Credits 305Index 309