Handbook of Cyanobacterial Monitoring and Cyanotoxin Analysis

Dr Jussi Meriluoto, Department of Biosciences / Biochemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, FinlandJussi Meriluoto, PhD, MTheol, is a biochemist of Finnish origin. He has been working in the field of toxic cyanobacteria since the 1980s. The main line of his research deals with instrumental analyses of cyanotoxins and biomarkers in various matrices. He has applied this expertise in the context of  environmental and bioaccumulation studies, ecotoxicology, toxinology, drinking water treatment and toxin degradation. He also has an interest in terrestrial cyanobacteria and probiotic bacteria. He is leading Working Group 1 Occurrence of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in CYANOCOST, the COST Action responsible for the development of the Handbook. An important incentive in his work is the principle of inclusiveness and the desire to exchange technical and managemental know-how with new actors entering the cyanotoxin field.Dr Lisa Spoof, Department of Biosciences / Biochemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, FinlandLisa Spoof, PhD, is a Finnish biochemist. She is a specialist on chromatographic and mass spectrometric analyses of cyanotoxins. She has carried out research on analysis, isolation and characterization of bioactive peptides (microcystins, nodularins, anabaenopeptins) in freshwater and brackish-water cyanobacteria since the 1990s. Her personal experience in laboratory work also includes research on cylindrospermopsin and cyanobacterial neurotoxins, and this strong hands-on experience has been useful for the editorial work concerning the practical chapters in this Handbook.Professor Geoffrey A. Codd, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, UK, and, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, UKGeoffrey Codd, PhD, FRSE,  is a microbiologist and has carried out research on the biochemistry and ecotoxicology of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. His research has included the molecular and organismal modes of action of microcystins, development of physico-chemical and antibody-based methods for cyanotoxin analysis and the investigation of waterborne, cyanotoxin-associated human and animal health incidents. Professor Codd is a past President of the British Phycological Society and the Federation of European Phycological Societies and has served on working parties and committees for the assessment and risk management of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins at national (UK, Australia, USA) and international level (EU, WHO, UNESCO).

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxviAcknowledgements xxviiiSection I Introduction 11 Introduction: Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, Their Human Impact, and Risk Management 3Geoffrey A. Codd, Jussi Meriluoto, and James S. Metcalf1.1 Introduction 31.2 Cyanotoxins 41.3 Exposure Routes, Exposure Media, and At‐Risk Human Activities 61.4 Cyanobacterial Blooms and Cyanotoxins in Relation to Human Pressures on Water Resources and Climate Change 71.5 Aims of the Handbook 7References 8Section II Cyanobacteria 92 Ecology of Cyanobacteria 11Jean‐François Humbert and Jutta Fastner2.1 Introduction 112.2 Environmental Conditions Leading to Cyanobacterial Blooms 122.3 Population Dynamics of Cyanobacteria 132.4 Spatial Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Ecosystems 152.5 Ecology of the Production of Toxins by Cyanobacteria 162.6 General Conclusions 17References 173 Picocyanobacteria: The Smallest Cell‐Size Cyanobacteria 19Iwona Jasser and Cristiana Callieri3.1 Introduction 193.2 Records of Toxic Picocyanobacteria 213.3 Summary 25References 264 Expansion of Alien and Invasive Cyanobacteria 28Mikołaj Kokociński, Reyhan Akçaalan, Nico Salmaso, Maya Petrova Stoyneva‐Gärtner, and Assaf Sukenik4.1 Introduction 284.2 Definition of Invasive/Alien Species: Nomenclature Problems 294.2.1 Invasive Species Concept in Cyanobacteria 294.3 Occurrence of Invasive and Alien Cyanobacteria 314.4 Factors Enhancing the Expansion of Alien Cyanobacteria 334.5 Impact of Cyanobacterial Invasion on Ecosystem 34References 36Section III Sampling, Monitoring and Risk Management 415 Health and Safety During Sampling and in the Laboratory 43Roberta Congestri, James S. Metcalf , Luca Lucentini, and Federica Nigro Di Gregorio5.1 Introduction 435.2 Sampling Safety 435.3 Laboratory Safety 445.4 Cyanotoxin Production and Application 455.5 Contamination due to Equipment, Glassware, and Accidents 45References 456 Basic Guide to Detection and Monitoring of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria 46Nico Salmaso, Cécile Bernard , Jean‐François Humbert, Reyhan Akçaalan, Meriç Albay, Andreas Ballot , Arnaud Catherine, Jutta Fastner , Kerstin Häggqvist, Mária Horecká, Katarzyna Izydorczyk, Latife Köker , Jiří Komárek, Selma Maloufi, Joanna Mankiewicz‐Boczek, James S. Metcalf , Antonio Quesada, Catherine Quiblier , and Claude Yéprémian6.1 Introduction 476.2 Monitoring of Cyanobacteria: Sampling Strategies 486.3 Cyanobacterial Identification and Quantification 55Appendix 6.1 Testing Phytoplankton Distributions: χ2 Test (Pearson Goodness‐of‐Fit Test) 63References 667 Case Studies of Environmental Sampling, Detection, and Monitoring of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria 70Kerstin Häggqvist, Reyhan Akçaalan, Isidora Echenique‐Subiabre, Jutta Fastner , Mária Horecká, Jean‐François Humbert, Katarzyna Izydorczyk, Tomasz Jurczak, Mikołaj Kokociński, Tore Lindholm, Joanna Mankiewicz‐Boczek, Antonio Quesada, Catherine Quiblier, and Nico Salmaso7.1 Introduction 717.2 Shallow Lakes 717.3 Deep Lakes 747.4 Reservoirs 757.5 Rivers 777.6 The Baltic Sea 787.7 Waterbodies Used for Drinking Water Production 79References 818 New Tools for the Monitoring of Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Ecosystems 84Jean‐François Humbert and Andrea Törökné8.1 Introduction 848.2 Use of Photosynthetic Pigments for the In Situ Quantification of Cyanobacteria and Other Phytoplankton in Water 858.3 Integration of Physicochemical and Fluorescence Sensors in Buoys 868.4 New Methods for Automatic Cell Counting in Water Samples 86References 879 Remote Sensing of Cyanobacterial Blooms in Inland, Coastal, and Ocean Waters 89Peter D. Hunter , Mark W. Matthews , Tiit Kutser , and Andrew N. Tyler9.1 Introduction 899.2 Bio‐optical Properties of Marine and Inland Waters 909.3 Platforms and Sensors 919.4 Overview of Approaches 929.5 Case Study Examples 959.6 Future Prospects 96References 9810 The Italian System for Cyanobacterial Risk Management in Drinking Water Chains 100Luca Lucentini, Liliana La Sala , Rossella Colagrossi , and Roberta Congestri10.1 Introduction 10010.2 Risk Assessment of Toxic Cyanobacterial Outbreaks in Water for Human Consumption in Italy 10110.3 Framework of Risk Management of Toxic Cyanobacterial Outbreaks in Water for Human Consumption 10210.4 Risk Information and Communication 106References 106Section IV Toxins and Bioactive/Noxious Compounds from Cyanobacteria 10711 Microcystins and Nodularins 109Arnaud Catherine, Cécile Bernard, Lisa Spoof , and Milena Bruno11.1 Chemical Characteristics and Diversity of Microcystins and Nodularins 10911.2 Biosynthesis and Genetics of MC and NOD Production 11011.3 Occurrence of MCs and NODs 11211.4 Toxicological Effects and Associated Health Risk 11311.5 Available Methods for the Analysis of MCs and NODs 117References 11812 Cylindrospermopsin and Congeners 127Mikołaj Kokociński, Ana Maria Cameán, Shmuel Carmeli, Remedios Guzmán‐Guillén, Ángeles Jos, Joanna Mankiewicz‐Boczek , James S. Metcalf , Isabel Maria Moreno, Ana Isabel Prieto, and Assaf Sukenik12.1 Chemical Characteristics of Cylindrospermopsin and Congeners 12712.2 Genes Involved in CYN Biosynthesis 12812.3 CYN Producers and Distribution 12812.4 Toxicity of CYN 12912.5 The Biological Role of CYN 13212.6 Degradation of CYN 13212.7 Available Methods for Determining CYN in Waters 132References 13313 Anatoxin‐a, Homoanatoxin‐a, and Natural Analogues 138Milena Bruno, Olivier Ploux, James S. Metcalf , Annick Mejean, Barbara Pawlik‐Skowronska, and Ambrose Furey13.1 Introduction 13813.2 Chemical Structure, Synthesis, and Reactivity 13813.3 Biosynthesis of ANTX, HANTX, and dihydroANTX 14013.4 Occurrence and Producing Strains 14013.5 Toxicity and Pharmacology 14113.6 Analytical Methodologies 142References 14414 Saxitoxin and Analogues 148Andreas Ballot, Cécile Bernard, and Jutta Fastner14.1 Introduction 14814.2 Toxicity of STXs 14914.3 Occurrence 14914.4 Genetics and Biosynthesis 15014.5 Detection Methods 15114.6 Guidance Values or National Regulations or Recommendations for Managing STXs 152References 15215 Anatoxin‐a(S) 155James S. Metcalf and Milena Bruno15.1 Chemical Structure of Anatoxin‐a(S) 15515.2 Biosynthesis 15515.3 Occurrence and Producing Strains 15615.4 Toxicology and Pharmacology 15615.5 Analytical Methods for Determination and Quantification 157References 15816 β‐N‐Methylamino‐l‐Alanine and (S)‐2,4‐Diaminobutyric Acid 160Olivier Ploux, Audrey Combes, Johan Eriksson, and James S. Metcalf16.1 Historical Overview 16016.2 Structure, Synthesis, and Molecular Properties 16116.3 Neurotoxicity 16116.4 Methods for Identification and Quantification 16216.5 Occurrence in Cyanobacteria, Plants, and Animals 162References 16317 Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins 165Sílvia Monteiro, Ricardo Santos, Luděk Bláha, and Geoffrey A. Codd17.1 Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins: Structure 16517.2 Occurrence of LPS Endotoxins 16717.3 Toxic Effects of LPS Endotoxins 16817.4 Methods for Determination of LPS Endotoxins 169References 17018 Cyanobacterial Retinoids 173Kunimitsu Kaya and Tomoharu Sano18.1 Introduction 17318.2 Detection of Retinoids Produced by Cyanobacteria 17418.3 Chemistry and Analysis of Retinoids 17518.4 Malformations by Cyanobacterial Retinoids 17618.5 Concluding Remarks 176References 17619 Other Cyanobacterial Bioactive Substances 179Tina Elersek, Luděk Bláha, Hanna Mazur‐Marzec, Wido Schmidt, and Shmuel Carmeli19.1 Introduction 17919.2 Aeruginosins and Spumigins 18219.3 Anabaenopeptins 18419.4 Biogenic Amines 18519.5 Depsipeptides 18619.6 Endocrine Disruptors and Novel Tumour Promoters 18719.7 Lyngbyatoxins and Other Toxins Produced by Lyngbya majuscula 18819.8 Microginins 18919.9 Microviridins 189References 19020 Taste and Odour Compounds Produced by Cyanobacteria 196Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia Hiskia20.1 Cyanobacterial Taste and Odour Compounds in Water Resources 19620.2 Analytical Methods for Taste and Odour Compounds 197References 199Section V Screening and Trace Analysis of Cyanotoxins 20321 Determination of Cyanotoxins by High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array 205Anastasia Hiskia, Lisa Spoof , Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Jussi Meriluoto21.1 Introduction: Application of High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography for Different Classes of Cyanotoxins 20521.2 HPLC of Microcystins and Nodularins 20621.3 HPLC of Anatoxins 20821.4 HPLC of Cylindrospermopsin 20821.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of HPLC‐PDA 208References 20922 Determination of Cyanotoxins by High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Derivatization 212James S. Metcalf and Paulo Baptista Pereira22.1 Principle of the Technique and Why It Is Used for Cyanotoxins 21222.2 Types of Reactions for Analysing Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Using High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Derivatization 21322.3 Types of Reactions for Analysing β‐N‐Methylamino‐l‐Alanine and Isomers by HPLC‐FLD 21622.4 Need for Confirmatory Techniques with HPLC‐FLD 216References 21623 Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry 218Josep Caixach, Cintia Flores, Lisa Spoof , Jussi Meriluoto, Wido Schmidt, Hanna Mazur‐Marzec, Anastasia Hiskia, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Ambrose Furey23.1 Introduction 21823.2 Ion Sources 22023.3 Types of Mass Analysers 22523.4 Application of LC‐MS in Cyanotoxin Analyses 23323.5 Overview of Quantitation: Cyanobacterial Toxins 23523.6 Ion Suppression/Enhancement Considerations 23723.7 High‐Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS) 23923.8 MS Experiments for the Detection of Unknown Cyanotoxins 24223.9 Performance Criteria of LC‐MS Methods for Identification and Quantification of Cyanotoxins 249References 25124 Capillary Electrophoresis of Cyanobacterial Toxins 258Gábor Vasas24.1 Basic Theory and Introduction of Capillary Electrophoresis 25824.2 Selection of Separation Methods 25924.3 Detection Methods 25924.4 CE Methods of Cyanobacterial Toxins 26024.5 Future Perspectives 262References 26225 Immunoassays and Other Antibody Applications 263James S. Metcalf and Geoffrey A. Codd25.1 Introduction 26325.2 Production of Antibodies versus Cyanotoxins 26425.3 Applications of Cyanotoxin Antibodies 26425.4 Cyanotoxin Localisation and Quantification Using Antibodies 26525.5 Other Cyanotoxin Antibody‐Related Technologies 265References 26626 Protein Phosphatase Inhibition Assays 267James S. Metcalf , Anastasia Hiskia, and Triantafyllos Kaloudis26.1 Background and Molecular Mechanism of Protein Phosphatase Inhibition 26726.2 Classes of Compounds that Inhibit Protein Phosphatases 26826.3 Effects of Microcystins on Cyanobacterial Protein Phosphatases 26826.4 The Basis of the PPIA Assay for Microcystins and Its Evolution 26826.5 Comparison of PPIA with Other Analytical Methods for Microcystins 26826.6 Commercially Available Kits for Microcystins 26926.7 Improvements to the PPIA Assay to Make It More Specific to Microcystins 26926.8 Conclusions about the Effectiveness of the PPIA Assay for Microcystins and Nodularins in Different Matrices 269References 27027 Bioassay Use in the Field of Toxic Cyanobacteria 272Luděk Bláha, Ana Maria Cameán , Valérie Fessard , Daniel Gutiérrez‐Praena , Ángeles Jos , Benjamin Marie , James S. Metcalf , Silvia Pichardo , María Puerto , Andrea Törökné , Gábor Vasas, and Bojana Žegura27.1 Introduction 27227.2 Drivers and Objectives for Bioassay Use 27327.3 Classification and Terminology 27427.4 Bioassays for the Effect Evaluation 27527.5 Bioassays for Monitoring 27627.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 278References 27828 Molecular Tools for the Detection of Toxigenic Cyanobacteria in Natural Ecosystems 280Jean‐François Humbert28.1 Introduction 28028.2 Molecular Methods for the Monitoring of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria 28128.3 Strengths and Limitation of These Molecular Approaches 28228.4 Conclusions 282References 283Section VI Methodological Considerations 28529 Method Validation Guidelines for the Analysis of Cyanotoxins 287Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Anastasia Hiskia29.1 Introduction: Method Validation as a Requirement for Laboratory Accreditation 28729.2 Performance Criteria and Validation Protocols for the Analysis of Cyanotoxins in Environmental Studies 28829.3 Validation Issues Concerning the Analysis of Cyanotoxins 290References 29130 Interpretation, Significance, and Reporting of Results 292Geoffrey A. Codd, Jutta Fastner , Tore Lindholm, Jussi Meriluoto, and James S. Metcalf30.1 Introduction 29230.2 Interpretation and Significance of Results 29330.3 Reporting of Results and Maximization of Benefits 29430.4 Examples, Debriefing 294References 29631 Lessons from the Užice Case: How to Complement Analytical Data 298Zorica Svirčev , Damjana Drobac , Nada Tokodi , Dunja Đenić , Jelica Simeunović , Anastasia Hiskia , Triantafyllos Kaloudis , Biljana Mijović , Stamenko Šušak , Mlađan Protić , Milka Vidović , Antonije Onjia , Sonja Nybom , Tamara Važić , Tamara Palanački Malešević , Tamara Dulić , Dijana Pantelić , Marina Vukašinović , and Jussi Meriluoto31.1 Introduction 29931.2 Vrutci Reservoir and the Cyanobacterial Bloom Detected in December 2013 29931.3 Analytical Work: Toxin Analyses of Water, Cyanobacterial Biomass, and Fish from Reservoir Vrutci 30131.4 Complementary Data on Toxicity and Observed Health Problems 30231.5 Analytical and Supplementary Results Combined: A Plausible Reconstruction of Events in Vrutci Reservoir and the City of Užice 30631.6 Conclusions from the Užice Case 306References 30732 Selection of Analytical Methodology for Cyanotoxin Analysis 309Jussi Meriluoto , James S. Metcalf and Geoffrey A. Codd32.1 Introduction 30932.2 General Comparison of Physicochemical Analyses, Biochemical Methods, and Bioassays 30932.3 Guidance for Selecting and Using Standard Operating Procedures Found in this Handbook 31032.4 Methodology versus Required Response Time 31132.5 Influence of Waterbody History on the Choice of Methods 31232.6 Integration of the Results Obtained: Making Sense 312Section VII Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 313SOP 1 Cyanobacterial Samples: Preservation, Enumeration, and Biovolume Measurements 315Arnaud Catherine, Selma Maloufi, Roberta Congestri, Emanuela Viaggiu, and Renata PilkaityteSOP 2 Chlorophyll a Extraction and Determination 331Claude Yéprémian, Arnaud Catherine, Cécile Bernard, Roberta Congestri, Tina Elersek, and Renata PilkaityteSOP 3 Phycocyanin Extraction and Determination 335Claude Yéprémian, Arnaud Catherine, Cécile Bernard, Roberta Congestri, Tina Elersek, and Renata PilkaityteSOP 4 Analysis of Picocyanobacteria Abundance in Epifluorescence Microscopy 339Iwona Jasser and Cristiana CallieriSOP 5 Estimation of Cyanobacteria Biomass by Marker Pigment Analysis 343Jean‐Pierre DescySOP 6 Extraction of Cyanotoxins from Cyanobacterial Biomass 350Leonardo Cerasino, Jussi Meriluoto, Luděk Bláha, Shmuel Carmeli, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Hanna Mazur‐MarzecSOP 7 Solid‐Phase Extraction of Microcystins and Nodularin from Drinking Water 354Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 8 Extraction of Microcystins from Animal Tissues 358Ondřej Adamovský and Luděk BláhaSOP 9 Analysis of Microcystins by Online Solid Phase Extraction–Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry 362Cintia Flores and Josep CaixachSOP 10 Determination of Microcystins and Nodularin in Filtered and Drinking Water by LC‐MS/MS 372Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 11 Analysis of Microcystins and Nodularin by Ultra High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry 379Leonardo CerasinoSOP 12 Analysis of Microcystins in Animal Tissues Using LC‐MS/MS 385Jiří Kohoutek and Luděk BláhaSOP 13 Quantitative Screening of Microcystins and Nodularin in Water Samples with Commercially Available ELISA Kits 390Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 14 Quantitative Screening of Microcystins and Nodularin in Water Samples with Commercially Available PPIA Kits 393Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 15 Solid‐Phase Extraction of Cylindrospermopsin from Filtered and Drinking Water 396Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 16 Determination of Cylindrospermopsin in Filtered and Drinking Water by LC‐MS/MS 399Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 17 Solid‐Phase Extraction of Anatoxin‐a from Filtered and Drinking Water 405Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 18 Determination of Anatoxin‐a in Filtered and Drinking Water by LC‐MS/MS 408Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 19 Analysis of Anatoxin‐a and Cylindrospermopsin by Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry 413Leonardo CerasinoSOP 20 Extraction and Chemical Analysis of Saxitoxin and Analogues in Water 418Lutz Imhof and Wido SchmidtSOP 21 Extraction of BMAA from Cyanobacteria 432James S. Metcalf, Sandra A. Banack, and Paul A. CoxSOP 22 Analysis of β-N‐Methylamino‐l‐Alanine by UHPLC‐MS/MS 435James S. Metcalf, William B. Glover, Sandra A. Banack, and Paul A. CoxSOP 23 Extraction and LC‐MS/MS Analysis of Underivatised BMAA 439Elisabeth J. FaassenSOP 24 Extraction, Purification, and Testing of LPS from Cyanobacterial Samples 447Lucie Bláhová and Luděk BláhaSOP 25 Extraction and Chemical Analysis of Planktopeptin and Anabaenopeptins 452Hanna Mazur‐Marzec, Tina Elersek, and Agata BłaszczykSOP 26 Thamnocephalus Test 462Andrea TöröknéSOP 27 Determination of Geosmin and 2‐Methylisoborneol in Water by HS‐SPME‐GC/MS 469Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia HiskiaSOP 28 Rapid Analysis of Geosmin and 2‐Methylisoborneol from Aqueous Samples Using Solid‐Phase Extraction and GC‐MS 475Christine Edwards, Craig McKenzie, Carlos Joao Pestana, Kyari Yates, and Linda A. LawtonSOP 29 Basic Validation Protocol for the Analysis of Cyanotoxins in Environmental Samples 481Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia HiskiaSection VIII Appendices 487Appendix 1 Cyanobacterial Species and Recent Synonyms 489Appendix 2 Cyanobacteria Associated With the Production of Cyanotoxins 501Appendix 3 Tables of Microcystins and Nodularins 526Index 538