Continuous Cover Forestry

Arne Pommerening is Professor of Forest Science in the Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SLU, Umea, Sweden. He is a prolific scholar of CCF, having taught classes on this subject for more than 20 years, and from 2000 to 2011 he was involved in the introduction of CCF to the United Kingdom.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xv1 Introduction 11.1 When Is a Forest a Forest? 11.2 The Nature of Forestry and Forest Management 41.3 Silvicultural Regimes and Types of Forest Management 81.4 Silvicultural Analysis and Planning 151.5 Continuous Cover Forestry – Definitions, Terms and Semi-synonyms 181.5.1 Continuity of Woodland Conditions 241.5.2 Reliance on Natural Processes, Promoting Vertical and Horizontal Structure 261.5.3 Attention to Site Limitations 271.5.4 Species, Size and Genetic Diversity 271.5.5 Selective Individual-Tree Silviculture 281.5.6 Conserving Old Trees, Deadwood, Rare and Endangered Plant and Animal Species 291.5.7 Promoting Native Tree Species/Provenances and Broadleaves 291.5.8 Environmentally Sensitive Forest Protection, Thinning and Harvesting Operations, Environmentally Sensitive Wildlife Management 311.5.9 Establishment and Conservation of Forest Margins, of Other Special Habitats Inside Forests and Networks of Protected Forests 321.5.10 In Conclusion 331.6 Common Misconceptions Dispelled 341.7 The Societies that Shape Us: Contrasting History of Forestry 361.8 Ensuring Sustainability: Area Control Versus Size Control 451.9 CCF in a Changing World 481.10 How to Introduce CCF to a New Region or a Country? 512 How Do I get Started with CCF? 562.1 Introduction 562.2 Identifying Land Suitable for CCF 582.2.1 ‘Accidents’ that Turn into Flagships 642.3 Starting from Scratch – Instant New CCF 682.3.1 Bradford–Hutt Plan 752.3.2 Anderson Group Selection System 792.4 The Mission of Transformation and Conversion 812.4.1 Underplanting 882.4.1.1 Nest Planting 912.4.2 Graduated-Density Thinning (GDT) 942.4.3 Variable-Density Thinning (VDT) 982.5 Keeping it Going: The Maintenance of CCF 1012.6 Biological Automation and Rationalisation 1013 Individual-Based Forest Management 1083.1 Introduction 1083.2 Definition and Terms of Individual-Based Forest Management 1093.3 History of Individual-Based Forest Management 1123.4 How and When Frame Trees Are Selected 1143.5 How Frame Trees Are Managed 1223.6 Individual-Based Forest Management for Restructuring and Transforming Forests 1294 Forest Structure – The Key to CCF 1334.1 Introduction 1334.2 Crown Classes 1384.3 Mixing Species – But How and When? 1414.4 Non-spatial Measures of Forest Structure 1494.4.1 Species Diversity 1504.4.1.1 Species Richness and Abundance 1504.4.1.2 Shannon and Simpson Indices 1524.4.1.3 Species Profile Index 1564.4.2 Size Diversity 1574.4.2.1 Size Diversity Based on Tree Stem Diameters 1574.4.2.2 Size Diversity Based on Tree Heights 1725 Interacting with Forest Structure 1795.1 Introduction 1795.2 Thinnings 1815.2.1 Thinning Regimes 1855.2.2 Thinning Type 1875.2.3 Thinning Intensity 1935.2.4 Thinning Cycle 1965.3 Regenerating Forest Stands with Silvicultural Systems 1985.3.1 Uniform Shelterwood System 2055.3.1.1 Method 2055.3.1.2 Ecological and Silvicultural Implications 2075.3.1.3 Advantages 2085.3.1.4 Disadvantages/Challenges 2085.3.1.5 Variants 2095.3.2 Group System 2105.3.2.1 Method 2105.3.2.2 Ecological and Silvicultural Implications 2145.3.2.3 Advantages 2155.3.2.4 Disadvantages/Challenges 2155.3.2.5 Variants 2155.3.3 Strip System 2185.3.3.1 Method 2185.3.3.2 Ecological and Silvicultural Implications 2195.3.3.3 Advantages 2205.3.3.4 Disadvantages/Challenges 2205.3.3.5 Variants 2205.3.4 Combined Silvicultural Systems 2225.3.4.1 Combining Natural and Artificial Regeneration 2225.3.4.2 Progressive Silvicultural Systems 2235.3.4.3 Group-Uniform Shelterwood System 2235.3.4.4 Group-Strip Shelterwood System 2235.3.5 Regeneration Methods by Species 2245.3.6 Operational Aspects of Silvicultural Systems 2245.3.7 Wind, Fire and Herbivores 2275.3.7.1 Wind 2275.3.7.2 Fire 2295.3.7.3 Herbivores 2325.4 Selection System 2325.4.1 Method 2335.4.2 Ecological and Silvicultural Implications 2375.4.3 Advantages 2385.4.4 Disadvantages/Challenges 2395.4.5 Variants 2395.5 Continuous Two-Storeyed High Forest 2405.5.1 Method 2405.5.2 Ecological and Silvicultural Implications 2405.5.3 Advantages 2415.5.4 Disadvantages/Challenges 2416 Demographic Equilibrium and Guidance Modelling 2426.1 Introduction 2426.2 History 2436.3 Static Equilibrium Models 2496.3.1 Model Theory 2496.3.1.1 BDq Approach 2516.3.2 Determining q 2536.3.2.1 Pretzsch q Factor Model 2546.3.2.2 Poznański-Rutkowska q Factor Model 2566.3.2.3 Susmel’s q Factor Model 2596.3.2.4 Sterba Criterion 2636.4 Dynamic Equilibrium Models 2636.4.1 Model Theory 2636.4.2 Ultimate Equilibrium Conditions 2656.4.3 Modelling Growth, Mortality and n min 2666.4.3.1 Modelling Growth 2676.4.3.2 Modelling Mortality 2706.4.3.3 Modelling n min 2716.4.4 Example Application of the Schütz Model 2726.5 Quantifying Deviations 2776.5.1 Mean Quadratic Difference 2786.5.2 Modified Absolute Discrepancy 2786.5.3 Homogeneity Index 2786.5.4 Application to Artist’s Wood 2796.6 Critique and Concluding Remarks 2796.6.1 q Factor Model 2806.6.2 Schütz Model 2816.6.3 Marking Guides 2826.6.4 Adjustment of Allowable Cut 2836.6.5 Species Representation 2856.6.6 Identifying Model Parameters 2866.6.7 Silvicultural Monitoring 2866.6.8 Software 2877 Putting it All Together: Implementing CCF for Different Management Purposes 2897.1 Introduction 2897.2 Forest Development Types 2927.3 Specialised CCF Management 3007.3.1 Timber Production 3027.3.1.1 Requirements 3027.3.1.2 Management Strategies 3027.3.2 Climate-Change Mitigation 3057.3.2.1 Requirements 3057.3.2.2 Management Strategies 3067.3.3 Biodiversity and Conservation 3107.3.3.1 Requirements 3107.3.3.2 Management Strategies 3117.3.3.3 Forest Margins 3127.3.3.4 Streamside Forest Buffers 3177.3.4 Water Catchment Management 3197.3.4.1 Requirements 3207.3.4.2 Management Strategies 3207.3.5 Urban and Recreation Forestry 3217.3.5.1 Requirements 3217.3.5.2 Management Strategies 3227.3.6 Sustainable Energy Wood Production 3247.3.6.1 Requirements 3247.3.6.2 Management Strategies 3267.3.7 Forest Cemeteries 3267.3.7.1 Requirements 3277.3.7.2 Management Strategies 3277.3.8 Protection Forests 3298 Training for CCF 3328.1 Introduction 3328.2 Training Requirements 3348.3 Marteloscopes 3368.3.1 Origins 3378.3.2 Plot Design 3388.3.3 Marking Sheet 3408.3.4 Marking Exercise 3418.3.5 Analysis and Feedback 3438.3.6 Reference Marking 3448.3.7 Analysis Methods and Strategies 3458.3.8 Important Results so Far 3488.3.9 Virtual Marteloscopes 3518.3.10 Limitations of Marteloscope Training 352Appendix A Overview of the Most Common Principles of CCF 354Appendix B Light Demand of Tree Species 356References 358Index 387