Wear

Gwidon Stachowiak is Professor and Head of the Tribology Laboratory in the School of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Western Australia. He has published more than 130 journal papers and 90 conference papers. He has written/ contributed to several books, including “Engineering Tribology” (Elsevier, 1993) that is due for a 3rd edition in 2005 and which is considered to be the best book available in the field of tribology. His most recent title is Experimental Methods in Tribology”, (Elsevier 2004). He serves on the advisory board for the Elsevier Tribology and Interface Engineering Book Series, and on the editorial board of 7 different journals.

• List of Contributors xiiiSeries Editors’ Foreword xviiPreface xix1 The Challenge of Wear 1I.M. HutchingsAbstract 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Definitions and Development of Wear Studies 11.3 Scope and Challenges 21.4 Conclusions 6References 62 Classification of Wear Mechanisms/Models 9K. KatoAbstract 92.1 Introduction 92.2 Classification of Wear Mechanisms and Wear Modes 102.2.1 Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal Wear 102.2.2 Wear Modes: Abrasive, Adhesive, Flow and Fatigue Wear 112.2.3 Corrosive Wear 142.2.4 Melt and Diffusive Wear 152.3 General Discussion of Wear Mechanisms and Their Models 152.3.1 Material Dependence 152.3.2 Wear Maps 162.3.3 Wear Mode Transition 172.3.4 Erosion 172.4 Conclusion 18Acknowledgements 18References 183 Wear of Metals: A Material Approach 21S.K. BiswasAbstract 213.1 Introduction 213.2 Mild Wear and Transition to Severe Wear 223.2.1 Mild Wear 223.2.2 Transition to Severe Wear 233.3 Strain Rate Estimates and Bulk Surface Temperature 273.3.1 Strain Rate Response Maps 283.3.2 Bulk Surface Temperature 303.3.3 The Phenomenological Argument 303.3.4 Micrographic Observations 313.4 Summary 343.4.1 Homogeneous Deformation – Severe Wear 343.4.2 Homogeneous Deformation – Mild Wear 353.4.3 Inhomogeneous Deformation – Severe Wear 35Acknowledgements 35References 354 Boundary Lubricated Wear 37S.M. Hsu, R.G. Munro, M.C. Shen, and R.S. GatesAbstract 374.1 Introduction 374.2 Lubricated Wear Classification 384.3 Lubricated Wear Versus “Dry” Wear 384.4 Wear Measurement in Well-Lubricated Systems 424.5 Measurement Procedures 444.5.1 Run-In Process 464.5.2 General Performance Wear Test (GPT) 494.5.3 Enhanced Oxidation Wear Test (EOT) 524.5.4 Boundary Film Persistence Test (BFPT) 534.5.5 Case Study with GPT and BFPT 554.5.6 Boundary Film Failure Test (BFFT) 574.6 Wear Mechanisms Under Lubricated Conditions 614.7 Modeling of Lubricated Wear 654.7.1 Wear 654.7.2 Contact Area 654.7.3 Rheology 664.7.4 Film Thickness 674.7.5 Contact Stress 674.7.6 Flash Temperatures 674.8 Summary 68Acknowledgments 69References 695 Wear and Chemistry of Lubricants 71A. Neville and A. Morina5.1 Encountering Wear in Tribological Contacts 715.2 Lubricant Formulations – Drivers for Change 735.3 Tribochemistry and Wear 765.4 Antiwear Additive Technologies 775.4.1 Antiwear Technologies 775.4.2 ZDDP – Antiwear Mechanism 785.4.3 Interaction of ZDDP with Other Additives 835.4.4 New Antiwear Additive Technologies 875.5 Extreme Pressure Additives 885.6 Lubricating Non-Fe Materials 89References 906 Surface Chemistry in Tribology 95A.J. Gellman and N.D. SpencerAbstract 956.1 Introduction 956.2 Boundary Lubrication and Oiliness Additives 956.2.1 Introduction 956.2.2 Monolayers, Multilayers and Soaps 966.2.3 Viscous Near-Surface Layers 1026.2.4 Boundary Lubrication in Natural Joints 1026.2.5 Summary 1036.3 Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate 1036.3.1 Background 1036.3.2 Analytical Approaches 1046.3.3 Summary of Film-Formation Mechanism 1046.3.4 Studies of Film Structure, Composition, and Thickness 1056.4 Hard Disk Lubrication 1096.5 Vapor-Phase Lubrication 1126.6 Tribology of Quasicrystals 1156.7 Conclusions 118Acknowledgments 118References 1187 Tribology of Engineered Surfaces 123K. Holmberg and A. MatthewsAbstract 1237.1 Introduction 1237.2 Definition of an Engineered Surface 1257.3 Tribomechanisms of Coated Surfaces 1257.3.1 Scales of Tribology 1257.3.2 Macromechanical Friction and Wear 1267.3.3 Micromechanical Mechanisms 1317.3.4 Modelling Stresses and Strains in a Coated Microcontact 1327.3.5 Tribochemical Mechanisms 1337.3.6 Nanoscale Mechanisms 1357.3.7 Debris Generation and Transfer Layers 1367.4 Contact Types 1397.4.1 Sliding 1397.4.2 Abrasion 1417.4.3 Impact 1417.4.4 Surface Fatigue 1417.4.5 Fretting 1427.4.6 Chemical Dissolution 1437.4.7 Lubricated 1437.5 Advanced Coating Types 1447.5.1 Hard Binary Compound Coatings 1457.5.2 Multilayer Coatings 1467.5.3 Nanocomposite Coatings 1497.5.4 Hybrid and Duplex Coatings 1517.6 Applications 1527.7 Conclusions 154References 1558 Wear of Ceramics: Wear Transitions and Tribochemical Reactions 167S. JahanmirAbstract 1678.1 Introduction 1688.2 Structure and Properties of Ceramics 1688.2.1 Alumina Ceramics 1688.2.2 Silicon Nitride Ceramics 1698.2.3 Silicon Carbide Ceramics 1708.3 Wear Transitions 1708.3.1 Alumina 1718.3.2 Silicon Nitride 1748.3.3 Silicon Carbide 1758.4 Damage Formation in Hertzian Contacts 1778.4.1 Brittle Behavior 1778.4.2 Quasi-Plastic Behavior 1778.4.3 Brittleness Index 1808.5 Transition Loads in Sliding Contacts 1818.5.1 Quasi-Plastic Behavior 1818.5.2 Brittle Behavior 1838.5.3 Transition from Brittle Fracture to Quasi-Plasticity 1848.6 Ceramics in Tribological Applications 185Acknowledgments 187References 1879 Tribology of Diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon Films: An Overview 191A. Erdemir and Ch. DonnetAbstract 1919.1 General Overview 1929.2 Diamond Films 1949.2.1 Deposition and Film Microstructure 1949.2.2 Tribology of Diamond Films 1959.2.3 Practical Applications 2049.3 Diamond-like Carbon Films 2079.3.1 Structure and Composition 2079.3.2 Tribology of DLC Films 2099.3.3 Synthesis of Carbon Films with Superlow-Friction and -Wear Properties 2159.3.4 Practical Applications 2179.4 Summary and Future Direction 219Acknowledgments 219References 22010 Tribology of Polymeric Solids and Their Composites 223B.J. Briscoe and S.K. SinhaAbstract 22310.1 Introduction 22410.2 The Mechanisms of Polymer Friction 22510.2.1 The Ploughing Term – Brief Summary 22510.2.2 The Adhesion Term – Brief Summary 22710.3 Wear 22810.3.1 Semantics and Rationalizations 22810.3.2 Wear Classification Based on Generic Scaling Responses 23010.3.3 Phenomenological Classification of Wear Damages 23210.3.4 Wear Classification Based on Polymeric Responses 24010.4 Tribology of Polymer Composites 24910.4.1 ‘Soft and Lubricating’ Phases in a Harder Matrix 24910.4.2 ‘Hard and Strong’ Phases in a ‘Soft’ Matrix 25010.4.3 Hybrid Polymer Composites 25310.5 Environmental and Lubrication Effects 25410.6 A Case Study: Polymers in Hip and Knee Prosthetic Applications – Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Poly(ethylene) (UHMWPE) 25610.7 Concluding Remarks 260Acknowledgements 261References 26111 Wear of Polymer Composites 269K. Friedrich, Z. Zhang and P. KleinAbstract 26911.1 Introduction 26911.2 Sliding Wear of Filler Reinforced Polymer Composites 27011.2.1 Short Fibres and Internal Lubricants 27011.2.2 PTFE Matrix Composites 27211.2.3 Micro- and Nanoparticle Reinforcements 27511.2.4 Integration of Traditional Fillers with Inorganic Nanoparticles 27711.2.5 Functionally Graded Tribo-Materials 27911.3 Artificial Neural Networks Approach for Wear Prediction 28011.4 Fibre Orientation, Wear Mechanisms and Stress Conditions in Continuous Fibre Reinforced Composites 28211.5 Conclusions 286Acknowledgements 286References 28712 Third-Body Reality – Consequences and Use of the Third-Body Concept to Solve Friction and Wear Problems 291Y. BerthierAbstract 29112.1 Introduction 29212.2 Relationship Between the Third Body and Friction 29212.2.1 Boundary Conditions 29212.2.2 Friction Analysis 29212.3 Relationship Between the Third Body and Wear 29312.3.1 Wear Laws 29312.3.2 Material Hardness and Wear 29412.4 What Methods Exist for Studying Friction and Wear? 29412.4.1 The Scientific Context Surrounding Tribology 29412.4.2 Physical Difficulties Related to Studying Contacts 29512.4.3 So Where to from Here? 29712.5 The Third-Body Concept 29812.5.1 Artificial and Natural Third Bodies 29812.5.2 Contact Without the Third Body 29912.5.3 Types of “Solid” Third Body from the Mechanical Viewpoint 29912.5.4 “Action Heights” of Third Bodies 30012.6 Functions and Behaviour of the Third Body 30012.6.1 Functions of the Third Body 30012.6.2 Operation of Solid Third Bodies 30112.6.3 Tribological Circuit of Third-Body Flows 30212.6.4 Rheology of the Third Body 30312.6.5 Scientific and Technological Consequences of the Tribological Circuit 30312.7 Roles of the Materials in a Tribological Contact 30412.7.1 Indirect Role of the Materials – Scale of the Actual Mechanism or Mechanical Device 30412.7.2 Direct Role of the Materials – Scale of First Bodies 30412.7.3 Optimal Direct Response of Material to the Tribological Contact 30512.7.4 Consequences on the Approach Used for Solving Technological Problems 30612.8 Taking into Account the Effects of the Mechanism 30612.8.1 Choosing the Conditions to be Modelled 30612.8.2 Technological Consequences of the Effects of the Mechanism 30712.9 Taking into Account the Effect of the First Bodies 30712.9.1 Local Contact Dynamics 30712.9.2 Technological Consequences of the Effects of the First Bodies 30712.10 “Solid” Natural Third-Body Modelling 30812.10.1 Reconstruction of the Tribological Circuit 30812.10.2 Technological Consequences of the Third Body 30912.11 Correspondence of the Strategy Proposed to Reality 31012.12 Control of Input Conditions 31012.12.1 Objectives 31012.12.2 Procedure 31112.12.3 Precautions 31112.13 Performing Experiments 31212.13.1 Initial Conditions 31212.13.2 Exterior of the Contact 31312.13.3 Interior of the Contact 31312.14 Conclusions 314Acknowledgements 314References 31513 Basic Principles of Fretting 317P. Kapsa, S. Fouvry and L. VincentAbstract 31713.1 Introduction 31713.2 Wear 31913.3 Industrial Needs 32013.4 Fretting in Assemblies 32113.5 Fretting Processes 32213.6 Fretting Parameters 33013.6.1 Nature of Loading 33013.6.2 Nature of the First Bodies 33113.6.3 Coatings 33213.6.4 Environment 33413.6.5 Frequency 33513.6.6 Temperature 33513.7 Conclusions 336References 33714 Characterization and Classification of Abrasive Particles and Surfaces 339G.W. Stachowiak, G.B. Stachowiak, D. De Pellegrin and P. PodsiadloAbstract 33914.1 Introduction 34014.2 General Descriptors of Particle Shape 34014.3 Particle Angularity Parameters 34114.3.1 Angularity Parameters SP and SPQ and Their Relation to Abrasive and Erosive Wear 34214.3.2 Cone-Fit Analysis (CFA) 34414.3.3 Sharpness Analysis 34914.4 Particle Size Effect in Abrasive Wear 35314.5 Sharpness of Surfaces 35614.5.1 Characterization of Surface Sharpness by the Modified SPQ Method 35614.5.2 Characterization of Surface Sharpness by SA 35814.6 Classification of Abrasive Surfaces 35914.7 Summary 364Acknowledgements 365References 36515 Wear Mapping of Materials 369S.M. Hsu and M.C. Shen15.1 Introduction 36915.1.1 Wear – A System Perspective 37015.1.2 Historical Material Selection Guide 37015.2 Basic Definition of Wear 37215.2.1 Nature of Wear 37215.2.2 Wear Characterization 37215.3 Wear as a System Function 37515.4 Wear Maps as a Classification Tool to Define the System 37615.5 Wear as an “Intrinsic” Material Property as Defined by Wear Maps 37715.6 Different Kinds of Wear Maps 37815.7 Application of Wear Maps 38015.7.1 Material Comparison Based on Wear Maps 38115.7.2 Wear Transition Diagrams 38515.7.3 Material Selection Guided by Wear Maps 38915.7.4 Wear Mechanism Identification 39115.7.5 Wear Modeling Guide Based on Wear Maps 39615.7.6 Wear Prediction Based on Wear Maps 40515.8 Construction Techniques of Wear Maps 41115.8.1 Conducting Wear Experiments 41115.8.2 Wear Data 41215.8.3 Data Trend Analysis 41315.8.4 Wear Mapping 41415.8.5 Selection of Parameters for Mapping 41615.8.6 Assumptions in the Step-Loading Test Procedure 41815.9 Application Map Concept and Examples 42015.10 Future Wear Map Research 421References 42216 Machine Failure and Its Avoidance – Tribology’s Contribution to Effective Maintenance of Critical Machinery 425B.J. RoylanceAbstract 42516.1 Introduction 42516.2 Maintenance Practice and Tribological Principles 42616.2.1 Maintenance Practice – A Brief Historical Overview 42616.2.2 Tribological Principles 42716.2.3 Tribology and Maintenance 43116.3 Failure Diagnoses 43216.3.1 Failure Morphology and Analysis 43216.3.2 Dealing with Failure – Two Short Case Studies 43416.3.3 Comment 43616.4 Condition-Based Maintenance 43616.5 Wear and Wear Debris Analysis 44016.5.1 Wear Modes and Associated Debris Characteristics – Some Experimental Results and Their Application to RAF Early Failure Detection Centres 44316.5.2 Summary of Laboratory Test Results 44516.5.3 Wear Particle Classification and Application 44616.6 Predicting the Remaining Useful Life and Evaluating the Cost Benefits 44816.6.1 Remaining Useful Life Predictions 44816.6.2 Evaluating the Cost Benefits 44916.7 Closure 450Acknowledgements 450References 451Index 453