Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials Processing

Michael A. Lieberman, PhD, is Professor of the Graduate School, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley. Allan J. Lichtenberg, PhD, was Emeritus Professor of the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley.

• List of Figures xxiList of Tables xlvPreface to Third Edition xlviiPreface to Second Edition xlixPreface to the First Edition liSymbols, Abbreviations, and Acronyms Iv1 Introduction 11.1 Materials Processing 11.2 Plasmas and Sheaths 51.3 Discharges 121.4 Symbols and Units 202 Basic Plasma Equations and Equilibrium 212.1 Introduction 212.2 Field Equations, Current, and Voltage 222.3 The Conservation Equations 252.4 Equilibrium Properties 30Problems 343 Atomic Collisions 373.1 Basic Concepts 373.2 Collision Dynamics 423.3 Elastic Scattering 463.4 Inelastic Collisions 533.5 Averaging Over Distributions and Surface Effects 64Problems 684 Plasma Dynamics 734.1 Basic Motions 734.2 Nonmagnetized Plasma Dynamics 774.3 Guiding Center Motion 844.4 Dynamics of Magnetized Plasmas 904.5 Waves in Magnetized Plasmas 934.6 Microwave and RF Field Diagnostics 100Problems 1075 Diffusion and Transport 1115.1 Basic Relations 1115.2 Diffusion Solutions 1135.3 Low-Pressure Solutions 1195.4 Diffusion Across a Magnetic Field 1235.5 Magnetic Multipole Confinement 129Problems 1336 dc Sheaths 1376.1 Basic Concepts and Equations 1376.2 The Bohm Sheath Criterion 1396.3 The High-Voltage Sheath 1456.4 Generalized Criteria for Sheath Formation 1476.5 High-Voltage Collisional Sheaths 1526.6 Electrostatic Probe Diagnostics 153Problems 1677 Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium 1717.1 Introduction 1717.2 Energy and Enthalpy 1727.3 Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy 1797.4 Chemical Equilibrium 1847.5 Heterogeneous Equilibrium 187Problems 1918 Molecular Collisions 1958.1 Introduction 1958.2 Molecular Structure 1958.3 Electron Collisions with Molecules 2028.4 Heavy-Particle Collisions 2118.5 Reaction Rates and Detailed Balancing 2218.6 Optical Emission and Actinometry 229Problems 2379 Chemical Kinetics and Surface Processes 2439.1 Elementary Reactions 2439.2 Gas-Phase Kinetics 2469.3 Surface Processes 2539.4 Surface Kinetics 2639.5 Showerhead Gas Flow 270Problems 27310 Particle and Energy Balance in Discharges 27910.1 Introduction 27910.2 Electropositive Plasma Equilibrium 28110.3 Electronegative Plasma Equilibrium 28910.4 Approximate Electronegative Equilibria 29710.5 Electronegative Discharge Experiments and Simulations 30410.6 Pulsed Discharges 313Problems 32411 Low-Pressure Capacitive Discharges 32911.1 Homogeneous Model 33011.2 Inhomogeneous Model 34011.3 Experiments and Simulations 35311.4 Asymmetric Discharges 36511.5 Voltage-Driven Sheaths and Series Resonance 36911.6 Multi-frequency Capacitive Discharges 37211.7 Standing Wave and Skin Effects 38311.8 Low-Frequency Sheaths 39111.9 Ion-Bombarding Energy at Electrodes 39411.10 Magnetically Enhanced Discharges 40111.11 Matching Networks and Power Measurements 406Problems 41012 Inductive Discharges 41512.1 High-Density, Low-Pressure Discharges 41512.2 Other Operating Regimes 42212.3 Planar Coil Configuration 43012.4 High-Efficiency Planar Discharges 436Problems 44113 Wave-Heated Discharges 44513.1 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Discharges 44513.2 Helicon Discharges 46413.3 Surface Wave Discharges 473Problems 47714 dc Discharges 47914.1 Qualitative Characteristics of Glow Discharges 47914.2 Analysis of the Positive Column 48214.3 Analysis of the Cathode Region 48514.4 Hollow Cathode Discharges 49214.5 Planar Magnetron Discharges 49814.6 Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition 507Problems 51015 High-Pressure Capacitive Discharges 51315.1 Introduction 51315.2 Intermediate Pressure RF Discharges 51415.3 Alpha-to-Gamma (α–γ) Transition 52415.4 Atmospheric Pressure RF Discharges 53415.5 Atmospheric Pressure Low-Frequency Discharges 548Problems 55616 Etching 56116.1 Etch Requirements and Processes 56116.2 Etching Kinetics 56816.3 Halogen Atom Etching of Silicon 57516.4 Other Etch Systems 58816.5 Atomic Layer Etching (ALE) 59516.6 Substrate Charging 608Problems 61617 Deposition and Implantation 61917.1 Introduction 61917.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 62117.3 Atomic Layer Deposition 62817.4 Sputter Deposition 63617.5 Plasma-Immersion Ion Implantation 640Problems 65118 Dusty Plasmas 65518.1 Qualitative Description of Phenomena 65518.2 Particle Charging and Discharge Equilibrium 65618.3 Particulate Equilibrium 66218.4 Formation and Growth of Dust Grains 66518.5 Physical Phenomena and Diagnostics 67018.6 Removal or Production of Particulates 675Problems 67719 Kinetic Theory of Discharges 68119.1 Basic Concepts 68119.2 Local Kinetics 69019.3 Nonlocal Kinetics 69319.4 Quasilinear Diffusion and Stochastic Heating 69719.5 Energy Diffusion in a Skin Depth Layer 70319.6 Kinetic Modeling of Discharges 707Problems 714Appendix A Collision Dynamics 717A.1 Coulomb Cross Section 718Appendix B The Collision Integral 721B.1 Boltzmann Collision Integral 721B.2 Maxwellian Distribution 722Appendix C Diffusion Solutions for Variable Mobility Model 723References 727Index 749