Practice of Silviculture

Mark S. Ashton, Morris K. Jesup Professor of Silviculture and Forest Ecology and Director of School Forests, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT, USA. Matthew J. Kelty, Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA.

• Preface xviAcknowledgements xviiPart 1 Introduction to Silviculture 11 The History and Philosophy of Silviculture 3Introduction 3Silviculture, its Origin and Development as an Applied Ecology 3The Philosophies of Silviculture as a Practice 12Silviculture as a Body of Knowledge 17References 192 Silviculture and its Place in Managing Current Forests and Woodlands 22Introduction 22The Purpose of Silviculture Today 22Definition of Silviculture 22Scope and Terminology of Silvicultural Practice 25The Silviculture Framework for Managing a Forest 29References 31Part 2 Ecological Foundations of Silviculture 333 Ecological Site Classification, Stands as Management Units, and Landscape‐Scale Planning 35Introduction 35Ecological Methods of Identifying and Classifying Sites 36Stands as Management Units 48New Developments in Landscape‐Level Ecological Planning 56References 594 Stand Dynamics: The Ecology of Forest Succession 63Introduction 63Initiating Disturbances and Sources of Regeneration 63Stages of Stand Development 63Defining Cohorts and Age Classes 68Defining Canopy Stratification by Age Class 68Relationship of Stand Dynamics to Other Interpretations of Vegetational Development 75Choice of Developmental Patterns 77References 785 Ecology of Regeneration 80Introduction 80Ecological Role of Natural Disturbance 80The Regeneration Process 92Disturbance, Climate, and Regional Patterns in Floristics of Forest Regeneration 104Regeneration Methods as Analogs to Natural Disturbance 111References 112Part 3 Methods of Regeneration 1176 Development of Silvicultural Systems and Methods of Regeneration 119Introduction 119Conceptual Formation of Silvicultural Systems: The Science of Place 119Classification of Natural Regeneration Methods 124Classification of Plantations and Artificial Seeding 129Naming Silvicultural Systems: The Taxonomy 131Summary Remarks 135References 1367 Site Treatments 137Introduction 137Disposal of Logging Slash 137Treatment of the Forest Floor and Competing Vegetation 145References 162Part 3A Natural Regeneration Methods 1698 Natural Regeneration: The Clearcutting Method 171Introduction 171The Protocol 171Regeneration of Pure Stands from Natural Seeding 173Applications of True Clearcutting: Case Studies from North America 177References 1839 Natural Regeneration: The Seed‐Tree Method 185Introduction 185The Protocol 187Variations in Spatial Patterns of Stand Structure 192Application of Seed‐Tree Methods 193References 20110 Natural Regeneration: The Shelterwood Method 204Introduction 204The Protocol for the Uniform Shelterwood 206Protocols for Alternative Arrangements 212Application of Shelterwood Methods 215References 22411 Natural Regeneration: Irregular Seed-Tree and Shelterwood Methods (Multi-Aged Systems) 228Introduction 228Development of Two‐ or Three‐Aged Stands 229Regeneration Methods Including Reserve Trees within Irregular Seed‐Tree and Shelterwood Systems 229Application of Two‐ or Three‐Aged Systems 233References 24812 Natural Regeneration: The Coppice Method 251Introduction 251Vegetative Regeneration and the Nature of Disturbance 251The Physiology and Morphology of Sprouting 252Types of Vegetative Regeneration 252Simple Coppice Systems 257Coppice Systems with Irregular Structures and Age Classes 265The Role of Coppice Stands in the Past, Present, and Future 267Conversion of Coppice Stands to High Forests 269References 26913 Natural Regeneration: Selection Methods 272Introduction 272The Protocol 273The Selection Regeneration Method and its Variations 273Managing for Balanced All‐Aged Stands 277Managing for Unbalanced All‐Aged Stands 286Application of the Selection Method of Regeneration 288References 300Part 3B Methods Based on Artificial Regeneration 30314 Species Selection and Genetic Improvement 305Introduction 305Selection of Species and Provenances 306Adaptation to Site 306Genetic Improvement 312References 32015 Nursery, Planting, and Seeding Techniques 322Introduction 322Propagation 322Planting and Seeding 337References 34816 The Arrangement, Composition, and Methods of Planting 350Introduction 350The Role of Planting 350Density of Plantings 351Spatial Arrangement of Plantings 352High Forest Plantations 353Low Forest Plantations 371Protection of New Plantations 373References 375Part 4 Post‐Establishment (Intermediate) Treatments 37917 Tree and Stand Growth 381Introduction 381Growth within Individual Trees 381Stand Scale Patterns of Production 390The Effect of Thinning on Stand Production 395The Effect of Thinning on the Economic Yield of Stands 397References 40118 Post‐Establishment Tools in Silviculture 403Introduction 403Cutting and Girdling 403Use of Herbicides 404Methods of Applying Herbicides 410Use of Insecticides 412Prescribed Burning 413Use of Fertilizer 419Irrigation 420References 42019 Pruning Methods and Applications 424Introduction 424The Ecology of Natural Pruning Processes 424Pruning Trees to Improve Timber Quality in Forests 428Techniques of Pruning Open Grown Trees Within Urban Environments 434Training and Pruning Fruit and Shade Trees in Orchards and Agroforestry Systems 438References 44120 Release Operations in Seedling and Sapling Stands 443Introduction 443Competing Vegetation 443Concept of Free‐To‐Grow 444Early Use of Release Treatments 444Vegetation Control Methods 445Timing and Extent of Release Treatments 451Ecological Impact of Release Treatments on Plant Communities 453Liberation Treatments 455Release Treatments that Control Invasives 457References 45821 Methods of Thinning 461Introduction 461The Different Approaches to Thinning 461Low Thinning 462Crown Thinning 468Dominant Thinning 473Free‐Form Thinning 477Variable‐Density Thinning 477Geometric Thinning 478Application of Thinnings 481References 48322 Quantitative Thinning: Theory and Application 486Introduction 486Conceptual and Experimental Proof for Thinning 486Thinning and its Objectives 486Quantitative Thinning Guidelines 496Density, Stocking, and Relative Density 496References 504Part 5 Silvicultural Considerations for Managing All Forests 50723 Conservation Management Practices 509Introduction 509Management Practices 509References 531Contents xiii24 Silviculture for Wildlife Habitat 534Introduction 534Habitat Elements Within Stands 535Landscape Elements Across Stands 551Examples of Application 555Control of Wildlife Damage to Trees 560References 56125 Silvicultural Applications to Forest Restoration: Rehabilitation and Reclamation 565Introduction 565Degradation and Restoration Processes of Forests 565Categories of Forest Degradation and their Restoration Treatments 567Summary 593References 59426 Approaches to and Treatments for Maintaining Healthy Forest Ecosystems 597Introduction 597The Growing Threat of Non‐Native Invasive Insects and Disease 597The Concept of Forest Ecosystem Health within Stand Dynamics 600Protection Against Biotic Agencies: Insects and Disease 601Protection Against Abiotic Agencies 606Using Silviculture to Control Damage 611References 61527 Managing Forest Carbon in Changing Climates 618Introduction 618The Ecology of Forest Carbon 618Avoiding Deforestation and Increasing Reforestation 620Carbon Management in Existing Forests 622The Use of Wood as Biomass Energyor in Wood Products for Carbon Storage 624References 625Part 6 Silvicultural Applications for Different Land Uses 62928 Ecosystem Management: Managing Public Natural Forests for Multiple Values 631Introduction 631Regional and Global Differences in Public Land Ownership 631Managing Complex Large‐Scale Forests 633The Ecosystem‐Management Paradigm 633Regional Examples of Ecosystem Management 636References 64229 Application of Silviculture to Watershed Management 645Introduction 645Baseline Watershed Conditions 646Paired Watershed Studies: Impacts of Land Clearance and Forest Disturbance 649Managing Forests for Water Quality: Examples from the United States 654Managing Forests for Water Yield: Examples from the United States 660Summary 663References 66330 Industrial Timber Management 665Introduction 665Principles of Regulating Timber Harvests 665Considerations for Timber Production in Forests 666Global and National Trends in Industrial Plantation Forestry 669References 67631 Application of Silviculture to Agroforestry 677Introduction 677Stages of Stand Development and Agroforestry 678Successional Agri‐silvicultural Practices 679Permanent Agri‐silvicultural Practices 683Selection of Tree Species for Agroforestry 689References 68932 Application of Silviculture to Urban Ecosystems and the Urban–Rural Interface 694Introduction 694Aesthetics and Landscape Design of Urban Forests 694Mitigating Urban Meso‐ and Micro‐Environments 701The Application of Silviculture to Urban Watersheds 704References 708Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs Mentioned in the Text 711Glossary of Terms 716Index 731