Earth's Electrical Environment

This latest addition to the Studies in Geophysics series explores in scientific detail the phenomenon of lightning, cloud, and thunderstorm electricity, and global and regional electrical processes. Consisting of 16 papers by outstanding experts in a number of fields, this volume compiles and reviews many recent advances in such research areas as meteorology, chemistry, electrical engineering, and physics and projects how new knowledge could be applied to benefit mankind.Table of ContentsFront MatterINTRODUCTIONLightningCloud ElectrificationElectrical Structure of the AtmosphereThe Planetary Boundary LayerMesosphereIonosphere and MagnetosphereTechniques for Evaluating the Electrical Processes and StructureSocietal ImpactRecommendationsReferencesI LIGHTNING Optical DetectorsIntracloud Versus Cloud-to-Ground LightningLightning Flash and Related CharacteristicsLightning Location NetworksReferencesINTRODUCTIONCLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNINGTime-Domain Fields and Lightning CurrentsLocations of Lightning Radio SourcesArtificial Triggering of LightningReferencesRECENT AND ONGOING STUDIESPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICSReferencesShock-Wave Formation and ExpansionComparisons with Numerical Simulations and ExperimentsTortuosity and the Thunder SignaturePROPAGATION EFFECTSFinite-Amplitude PropagationScattering and Aerosol EffectsRefractionPropagation Effects EvaluationAcoustic Reconstruction of Lightning ChannelsELECTROSTATICALLY PRODUCED ACOUSTIC EMISSIONSReferencesINTRODUCTIONMechanisms of Lightning DamageNew Results on Lightning CharacteristicsProtection TechniquesFUTURE RESEARCH NEEDED FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN PROTECTIONReferencesINTRODUCTIONNO PRODUCTION BY LIGHTNINGThe Global Dissipation Rate, RThe Global NO Production Rate, (NO)OTHER TRACE GASES PRODUCED BY LIGHTNINGReferencesII CLOUD AND THUNDERSTORM ELECTRICITY VERTICAL CONVECTION AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECTConditioning the Air for OverturningCONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION IN RELATION TO AIR MOTIONSTRONG CONVECTIONHAILTORNADOESACKNOWLEDGMENTReferences8 The Electrical Structure of Thunderstorms ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENTTHE MAIN NEGATIVE AND UPPER POSITIVE CHARGES: SOME OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCEDISCUSSIONPARTICLE-CHARGE OBSERVATIONSCHARGE MOTIONS AND CURRENTSLIGHTNING AND THE STORM ELECTRIFICATIONLIGHTNING EVOLUTIONSUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSReferencesINTRODUCTIONDiffusion ChargingDrift ChargingSelective Ion ChargingBreakup ChargingInduction ChargingInduction ChargingInterface ChargingCloud StageRain StageHail StageCONCLUSIONSReferencesINTRODUCTIONMECHANISMS OF CHARGE SEPARATIONInductive ProcessFreezing PotentialsCHARGING BY ION ATTACHMENTParallel-Plate ModelsOne-Dimensional ModelsTwo-Dimensional ModelsThree-Dimensional ModelsDISCUSSIONReferencesIII GLOBAL AND REGIONAL ELECTRICAL PROCESSES INTRODUCTIONIonizationProperties of IonsAttachment of Ions to Aerosol ParticlesEffect of the Global CircuitTurbulent Transport of Electrical PropertiesPHENOMENOLOGY OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYERMODELING AND THEORYThe Electrode EffectConvection Currents in the Planetary Boundary LayerMeasurement of Global-Scale PhenomenaIon Physics and Balance in the Planetary Boundary LayerReferencesINTRODUCTIONION PRODUCTION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHEREAEROSOLS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY, SMALL ION CONCENTRATION, AND MOBILITYAIR-EARTH CURRENT AND ELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERECONCLUSIONReferencesINTRODUCTIONSOURCES OF IONIZATIONPositive IonsNegative IonsModel CalculationsCONDUCTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHEREELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERECONCLUSIONReferences14 Upper-Atmosphere Electric-Field Sources ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES IN SPACESOLAR WIND/MAGNETOSPHERE DYNAMOIONOSPHERIC WIND DYNAMOVARIABILITYEFFECTS OF UPPER-ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CURRENTSSOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMSReferences15 The Global Atmospheric-Electrical Circuit THUNDERSTORMS AS GENERATORS IN THE GLOBAL CIRCUITGlobal ThunderstormsCurrent Above ThunderstormsElectrical Conductivity, Columnar Resistance, and Global ResistanceFair-Weather Vertical Current Density and Total CurrentIonosphere PotentialMATHEMATICAL MODELS OF GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITYModel ImprovementsRegional ModelingELECTRICAL COUPLING BETWEEN THE UPPER AND LOWER ATMOSPHERESOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMSReferencesINTRODUCTIONThe Physical Problem: Hydrology, Geology, Geothermics, and TectonicsDeep Telluric CurrentsCommunication CablesPowerlinesRailwaysProspecting of Underground StructuresEarth's Astronomical MotionCONCLUSIONSReferencesAPPENDIX: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTAppendix ReferencesINDEX