4D Printing Technology

Bijaya Bikram Samal, PhD, is a pioneering researcher in 4D printing at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He was the first in India to initiate groundbreaking research in 4D printing technology and gained international recognition for creating the world's strongest 4D printed part. He is a fellow of the Bose Science Society, chartered engineer for the Institute of Engineers, and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education.Cheruvu Siva Kumar, PhD, is a professor of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. His post-doctoral research was conducted as a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. He has over 100 publications, ten patents, and serves as an expert panelist for government projects. His research interests include additive manufacturing, robotics, and computer networks.Shailendra Kumar Varshney, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He has received numerous prestigious fellowships, including a University Grant Commission Council of Scientific and Industrial Research fellowship from India, a Monbukagakusho and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science fellowship from Japan, and the Alexander von Humboldt fellowship from Germany. His research focuses on on-chip photonic components, nonlinear photonics, and quantum photonics.

• Preface xvAcknowledgements xvii1 Importance of Additive Manufacturing in the Era of Industry 4.0 1Bijaya Bikram Samal, Abhishek Kumar, Anita Jena, Debadutta Mishra, Shailendra Kumar Varshney , Ashish Kumar Nath and Cheruvu Siva Kumar1.1 Introduction 21.2 Additive Manufacturing as an Enabler of Industry 4.0 61.3 Synergies Between Additive Manufacturing and Digital Technologies 91.3.1 Flexibility and Customization 91.3.2 Decentralized Manufacturing and Localized Production 91.3.3 Sustainability and Environmental Impact 101.3.4 Continuous Innovation through Iterative Design 101.4 Integration of AM with Digital Twins and Simulation 101.4.1 Role of Digital Twins in Manufacturing 111.4.2 Simulation Technologies Enhancing AM Integration 131.4.3 Real-Time Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance 131.5 Applications Across Industries 141.5.1 Automotive Lightweighting for Fuel Efficiency 141.5.2 Healthcare Customized Medical Implants 151.5.3 Consumer Electronics Prototyping 151.5.4 Aerospace and Defense: Complex Component Manufacturing 161.5.5 Biotechnology: Bioprinting and Tissue Engineering 161.5.6 Automotive and Transportation: Short-Run Production and Prototyping 171.5.7 Consumer Goods: Customized Consumer Products 171.5.8 Energy Sector: Efficient Component Manufacturing 171.5.9 Construction: Customized Architectural Components 181.5.10 Marine: Lightweight and Durable Ship Components 181.5.11 Sports Equipment: Tailored Performance Gear 181.5.12 Electronics: Miniaturized and Efficient Circuitry 181.6 Challenges and Opportunities 191.6.1 Technical Challenges in Integration 191.6.2 Adoption Barriers and Industry Transition 191.6.3 Opportunities for Research and Innovation 201.7 Conclusions 20Acknowledgments 21References 212 Additive Manufacturing Processing and Techniques: Focusing on Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) and Its Various Post Processing Technologies 29Abhishek Kumar, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Ashish Kumar Nath, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar2.1 Introduction 302.2 Classification of Additive Manufacturing 322.2.1 Material Classification 342.2.2 Energy Source Classification 342.2.3 Process Type Classification 342.2.4 Application Classification 352.3 LPBF 352.3.1 L-PBF Process Details 362.3.2 Process Parameters 392.3.3 Surface Roughness and Morphology of L-PBF 412.3.4 Metallurgical Aspects and Mechanical Properties of L-PBF Parts 422.4 Post Processing of Additive Manufactured Parts 432.4.1 Powder Removal, Recycling and Conditioning 432.4.2 Part Removal and Postprocessing for Machining Operations 432.4.3 Finishing of Part for Improved Surface Finish and Aesthetic 442.4.3.1 Mechanical Surface Post-Processing 442.4.3.2 Chemical Treatments and Electrochemical Surface Modification 442.4.3.3 Laser-Based Surface Polishing 452.4.3.4 Surface Coating 462.4.3.5 Heat Treatment 472.4.3.6 Polishing 472.4.3.7 Laser Polishing 492.4.3.8 Mechanism of Laser Polishing 492.4.3.9 Type of Laser Polishing 522.4.3.10 Advantage, Limitation and Application of Laser Polishing 522.5 Surface Metrology and Characterization 542.5.1 Surface Integrity and Topography 542.5.2 Surface Texture 552.5.2.1 Form 552.5.2.2 Waviness 552.5.2.3 Roughness 562.5.2.4 Micro Roughness 562.5.2.5 Filtering 562.5.3 Surface Texture Parameters 572.5.4 Significance of L-PBF Surface Roughness for Various Applications 582.6 Conclusions 59Acknowledgments 60References 613 The Rise of Smart Materials: Recent Developments 69Mariel Amparo Fernandez Aramayo, Mohd Rehan, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Cheruvu Siva Kumar and Shailendra Kumar Varshney3.1 Introduction 703.2 Importance of Smart Materials in 4D Printing 723.3 Types of Smart Materials 733.3.1 Shape Memory Materials 743.3.1.1 Concepts of Shape Memory Effects 743.3.1.2 Shape Memory Polymers 763.3.1.3 Shape Memory Alloys 773.3.2 Piezoelectric Materials 783.3.3 Magnetostrictive Materials 783.3.4 Thermoresponsive Materials 793.3.5 Photo Responsive Materials 803.3.6 Chromoactive Materials 813.3.7 Rheological Fluids 833.3.8 Self-Healing Materials 833.3.9 Hydrogels 843.3.10 Liquid Crystal Elastomers (LCEs) 843.4 Conclusion 85References 864 From 3D Printing to 4D Printing: Adding Time Dimension 93Bijaya Bikram Samal, Debadutta Mishra, Marwan Nafea, Anita Jena, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar4.1 Introduction 944.2 Additive Manufacturing Evolution 954.2.1 Historical Overview of 3D Printing Technology 964.3 A Decade of 4D Printing (2013-2023) 984.4 Understanding the Fourth Dimension: Time in Printing 1064.4.1 Conceptualization of Time as a Dimension in Additive Manufacturing 1074.5 Laws of 4D Printing 1114.6 Challenges and Opportunities in the Transition to 4D Printing from 3D 1134.6.1 Material Limitations and Compatibility Issues in 4D Printing 1134.6.2 Scalability and Cost Considerations for 4D Printing Technologies 1144.6.3 Regulatory Hurdles and Safety Concerns in Implementing 4D Printing 1144.7 Future Directions and Emerging Trends in 4D Printing 1154.7.1 Development of New Smart Materials 1154.7.2 Integration with Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 1154.7.3 Biomedical Applications 1164.7.4 Sustainable and Regenerative Manufacturing 1164.8 Conclusions 116Acknowledgments 117References 1175 4D Printing of Polymers 125Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda5.1 Introduction to 4D Printing Techniques of Polymers 1265.2 4D Printing Technologies 1285.2.1 Stereolithography 1285.2.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP) 1295.3 Extrusion 3D Printing 1305.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 1315.4 Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM) or Direct Ink Writing (diw) 1325.5 Binder Jetting 1335.5.1 Inkjet Printing 1335.5.2 Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP) 1345.6 4D Printing of SMPs and Materials 1355.6.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL) Based Polymers 1375.6.2 Polyurethane (PU) 1385.6.3 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 1395.6.4 4D Hydrogels 1405.7 4D Printing of Two-Way SMPs 1445.8 Applications of SMPs 1485.9 Summary & Future Scope 149References 1516 Polymer Blends and Reinforcements in 4D Printing 165Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra, G. Naga Mallikarjun Rao and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda6.1 Introduction 1666.2 Types of Polymer Blends 1676.2.1 Miscible Polymer Blends 1676.2.2 Immiscible Polymer Blends 1686.2.3 Compatibility for Miscible Polymer Blends 1686.3 Shape Memory Polymer Blends 1696.3.1 Blending of SMP/Conventional Polymers 1696.3.2 SMP Blends of Crystalline and Amorphous Polymers 1706.3.3 SMP Blends by Combining Crystalline Polymer with Crystalline Polymer 1716.3.4 SMP Blends by Combining Elastomer with Crystalline or Amorphous Polymer 1716.3.5 SMPs Created by Blending and Radiation Crosslinking 1726.4 Reinforcements in 4D Printing 1726.4.1 Fiber Reinforcements 1726.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) or Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs) 1746.4.3 Graphene Reinforcements 1786.4.4 Carbon Black Reinforcements 1796.4.5 Nano Clay Reinforcements 1806.4.6 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 1826.4.7 Thermo-Responsive Nanoparticles 1836.4.8 Photo-Curable Nanoparticles 1846.4.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles 1856.5 Applications of Blended and Reinforced SMPs in 4D Printing 1856.6 Characteristics of 4D Printed Polymer Blends and Nanocomposites 1866.7 Summary and Future Scope 1956.8 Challenges 1956.9 Future Prospects 196References 1967 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale: Technologies, Challenges, and Applications 205Kaustav Moni Bora, Anita Jena, Ujjal Dey, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu SivaKumarAbbreviations 2067.1 Introduction 2077.1.1 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale 2107.2 Materials 2117.3 Micro-Nano Scale 4D Printing Processes 2147.3.1 Two-Photon Lithography/3D Printing by Direct Laser Writing 2177.3.2 Micro Laser Sintering 2187.3.3 Micro Stereolithography 2207.3.4 Ink Based AM 2207.3.5 Beam Deposition 2227.3.6 Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) 2227.4 Applications of 4D Printing 2237.4.1 Structural Components 2237.4.2 Robotics 2257.4.3 Biomedical and Tissue Engineering 2267.4.4 Electronic Devices and Absorbers 2277.5 Challenges in 4D Printing Technology 2297.6 Future Scope of 4D Printing 2317.7 Conclusion 233References 2348 Characterization Techniques for Four Dimensional (4D) Printed Parts 245Bijaya Bikram Samal, Bharat Charan Goud Marupalli, Pranabjyoti Talukdar, Anita Jena, Roja Rani Korrayi, Tapasendra Adhikary, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar8.1 Introduction 2468.2 Characterization Techniques Overview 2488.2.1 Introduction to Characterization and its Importance for 4D Printing 2488.2.2 Characterization Strategies for Ensuring Quality in Additive Manufacturing and 4D Printing 2518.3 Mechanical Characterization 2548.3.1 Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Testing 2558.3.2 Fatigue and Impact Testing 2588.4 Thermal Characterization 2598.4.1 Evaluation of Thermal Properties 2598.4.2 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity in Printed Parts 2608.4.3 Heat Resistance Testing for Various Printing Materials 2608.4.4 Impact of Layering on Thermal Performance 2628.5 Surface Finish and Roughness 2628.5.1 Assessing Surface Quality 2628.5.2 Quantitative Analysis of Surface Finish 2628.5.3 Visual Inspection Techniques 2638.5.4 Importance of Post-Processing 2638.5.5 Role of Post-Processing in Achieving Desired Surface Finishes 2638.6 Microstructure Analysis 2638.6.1 Microscopic Examination 2648.6.2 Techniques for Microstructure Analysis 2648.6.3 Printing Parameter Influence 2658.7 Dimensional Accuracy and Precision 2678.7.1 Assessing Accuracy and Precision 2688.7.2 Measurement Techniques for Dimensional Accuracy 2688.7.3 Precision Considerations in Layered Manufacturing 2688.8 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) 2698.8.1 Introduction to NDT Techniques 2698.8.2 Overview of Non-Destructive Testing Methods 2698.8.3 NDT Suitability for Layered Structures 2708.8.4 Techniques for Identifying Defects in 3D and 4D Prints 2708.9 Conclusions 270References 2719 4D Printing Applications in Photonics 281Bijaya Bikram Samal, Shubhanshi Sharma, Monica Pradhan and Shailendra K. Varshney9.1 Introduction 2829.2 Smart Materials in Photonics 2849.2.1 Piezoelectric Materials 2859.2.2 Thermo-Responsive Materials 2859.2.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials 2869.2.4 Photoresponsive Materials 2889.2.5 Hygroscopic Materials 2889.2.6 Electroactive Materials 2899.3 4D Printing Processes in Photonics 2909.3.1 Liquid-Based 2909.3.1.1 Molten 2919.3.1.2 Polymerization 2929.3.2 Solid Based 2959.3.2.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) 2959.3.2.2 Powder Bed Fusion 2959.3.2.3 Direct Energy Deposition 2969.3.2.4 Binder Jetting 2969.4 4D Printed Optical Components and Their Applications in Optics and Photonics 2969.4.1 4D Printed Fibers 2979.4.2 4D Printed Optical Resonators 2979.4.3 Structural Color Generation and Anticounterfeiting 2999.4.4 Infrared Detector 3009.4.5 Sensors and Actuators 3019.5 Future of 4D Printed Photonics and Emerging Novel Applications 3069.6 Conclusion 307Acknowledgement 309References 30910 Methods, Materials, Shape Programming, and Applications of 4D Printing 315Jian Ming Lee, Jie Wei Chee, Joel Zi Xu Wong, Li Yang Foong and Marwan Nafea10.1 Introduction 31610.2 4D Printing Methods 31710.2.1 Material Extrusion (MEX) 31810.2.2 Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) 31910.2.3 Material Jetting (MJT) 32110.2.4 Binder Jetting (BJT) 32210.2.5 Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 32310.2.6 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 32310.2.7 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 32410.3 4D Printing Materials 32610.3.1 Thermo-Responsive Materials 32710.3.2 Electro-Responsive Materials 32810.3.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials 32810.3.4 Water-Responsive Materials 32810.3.5 pH-Responsive Materials 32810.3.6 Photo-Responsive Materials 32910.3.7 Piezoelectric Materials 32910.4 Shape Programming 32910.5 Applications of 4D Printing 33110.5.1 Electronics Applications 33210.5.2 Biomedical Applications 33310.5.3 Origami Applications 33410.5.4 Robotics Applications 33510.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 336Acknowledgment 336References 337Index 345