Tracers in Hydrology

Christian Leibundgut and Piotr Maloszewski are the authors of Tracers in Hydrology, published by Wiley.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgements xv1 Introduction 12 The Integrated Concept of Tracers in Hydrology 52.1 System approach 52.2 Definition of tracers 72.3 Modelling in the context of integrated tracerhydrology 92.4 Fields of application 123 Environmental Tracers 133.1 Introduction 133.2 Stable isotopes of water 153.2.1 Notation 153.2.2 Fractionation 173.2.3 The global distribution in rainfall 223.2.3.1 Temperature effect 233.2.3.2 Seasonal effect 243.2.3.3 Altitude effect 253.2.3.4 Continental effect 273.2.3.5 Regionalization of isotopes in rainfall 293.2.3.6 Evaporation 303.3 Stable isotopes in soil 353.3.1 Attenuation 353.4 Stable isotopes in surface and groundwater 383.4.1 Temporal variability of stable isotopes in runoff 383.4.2 Temporal variability of stable isotopes in groundwater 393.5 The use of environmental isotopes for hydrological system analysis 403.6 Nitrogen isotopes and origin assignment 423.7 Age dating 433.7.1 Tritium 433.7.2 Dating with gases (CFC, SF 6) 453.7.2.1 Dating with other noble gases 503.7.2.2 14 C-Dating 504 Artificial Tracers 574.1 Fluorescent tracers 594.1.1 Basics of fluorescence 614.1.1.1 Spectra 634.1.2 Chemical and physical characteristics of dye tracers 654.1.2.1 Solubility 664.1.2.2 Fluorescence intensity – detection limit 674.1.2.3 Effects of dependencies 694.1.2.4 pH Dependence 704.1.2.5 Temperature dependence 724.1.2.6 Photolytic dependence 724.1.2.7 Sorption processes 764.1.2.8 Chemical and biological stability 844.1.2.9 Toxicity and related environmental effects 864.1.2.10 General assessment 864.1.3 Measurement techniques 884.1.3.1 Filter fluorometer 884.1.3.2 Spectral fluorometer 894.1.3.3 Synchronous scan technique 894.1.3.4 Background signals and light scattering 944.1.3.5 Fibre optic fluorometer (FOF) 964.1.3.6 Field fluorometer for in situ measurements 974.1.3.7 Laser measurement 994.1.3.8 Advanced measurement techniques 1004.1.3.9 Long term sampling using active charcoal bags 1004.2 Salt tracers 1024.2.1 Chemical and physical characteristics of salts 1024.2.1.1 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 1054.2.1.2 Bromide (Br −) 1054.2.1.3 Lithium 1064.2.1.4 Iodide 1064.2.2 Measurement techniques 1074.3 Drifting particles as tracers 1074.3.1 General characteristics of drifting particles 1084.3.1.1 Lycopodium spores 1094.3.1.2 Bacteria and bacteriophages (or phages) 1094.3.1.3 Fluorescent microspheres 1114.3.2 Measurement techniques and sampling of particle tracers 1114.3.2.1 Measurement 1114.3.2.2 Sampling 1124.4 Radioactive tracers 1124.4.1 Basics of radioactivity 1124.4.2 Characteristics of radioactive tracers 1144.4.2.1 Single-well technique 1154.5 Other tracers 1154.5.1 Fluorobenzoic acids (FBA) 1154.5.1.1 Suitability/potential applications 1164.5.2 Deuterium 2 H as an artificial tracer 1174.5.3 Dissolved gas tracers 1184.5.3.1 Common gas tracers and tracer characteristics 1194.5.3.2 Gas-specific methods – technical equipment 1194.5.3.3 Applications 1204.5.4 Nonfluorescent dyes 1204.5.4.1 Brilliant blue 1225 Mathematical Modelling of Experimental Data 1235.1 Artificial tracer (ideal) under saturated flow conditions 1235.1.1 Transport equations 1235.1.1.1 3D equations 1235.1.1.2 2D equations 1265.1.1.3 1D equations 1275.1.2 Solutions to the transport equations 1275.1.2.1 2D solution 1285.1.2.2 1D solution 1305.1.3 Estimation of the transport parameters 1335.1.3.1 Combined least squares method (LSQM) 1335.1.3.2 Method of moments (MM) 1365.1.3.3 The cumulative curve method (CCM) 1375.1.4 Artificial tracer experiments in multi-flow systems 1405.1.5 Experiments in double-porosity aquifers 1445.1.6 Examples 1485.1.6.1 Column experiment 1485.1.6.2 Combined pumping-tracer test 1495.1.6.3 Experiment in multi-flow system 1515.1.6.4 Experiment in double-porosity (fissured) medium 1535.2 Tracer experiments under unsaturated flow conditions 1545.3 Tracer experiments in streams and rivers 1585.4 Environmental tracer data 1605.4.1 Introduction 1605.4.2 The basic concept of lumped-parameter models 1615.4.2.1 Combined piston-flow diffusion model (SPFM) 1655.4.3 Selection of the model 1665.4.4 Examples 1685.4.4.1 Application of stable isotopes to bank filtration 1685.4.4.2 Application of tritium measurements in catchment areas 1705.4.5 Multi-cell approach and concluding remarks 1725.5 The goodness-of-fit of a model 1746 Technical Instructions 1756.1 Planning and execution of a tracer study 1756.1.1 Data collection and evaluation, field reconnaissance and mapping 1766.1.2 Choice of tracers and estimation of tracer mass 1776.1.3 Planning of studies and experiment execution in detail – creation of a schedule 1786.1.4 Risk management 1796.1.5 Consultation with authorities and formal application (legal process) 1796.1.6 Practical suggestions for experiment execution 1806.1.7 Requirements for an adequate groundwater sampling 1816.2 Estimation of tracer injection mass 1826.3 Gauging discharge 1876.3.1 Approach of dilution method 1876.3.2 Slug injection (integration method, gulp injection) 1886.3.3 Constant rate injection 1906.3.4 Requirements for tracers 1916.3.5 Salt dilution technique 1936.3.6 Characteristic example of a tracer dilution gauging in a brook (slug injection) 1946.4 Chloride method for groundwater recharge estimation 1956.5 Hydrograph separation using the end member mixing analysis (EMMA) 1987 Case Studies 2017.1 Groundwater 2027.1.1 Case study: ‘Estimation of groundwater origin, residence times, and recharge of Chad Aquifers in Nigeria’ 2107.1.1.1 Introduction and aim 2107.1.1.2 Description of test site 2107.1.1.3 Hydrogeology 2107.1.1.4 Methodology 2127.1.1.5 Results 2137.1.1.6 Interpretation 2187.1.2 Case study: ‘Vulnerability of a spring capture zone’ 2187.1.2.1 Introduction and aim 2197.1.2.2 Description of test site 2197.1.2.3 Methodology 2197.1.2.4 Results 2207.1.3 Case study: ‘Evaluation of aquifer parameters by single well techniques’ 2217.1.3.1 Single well experiment using radioactive isotope 82 Br 2237.1.3.2 Single well experiment with fluorescent tracers using fibre optic sensor 2247.1.3.3 Single well experiment with fluorescent tracers using online fluorometer 2267.2 Case studies in the unsaturated zone and in soils 2297.2.1 Specific aspects of using tracers in the unsaturated zone 2307.2.2 Case study: ‘Environmental deuterium transport through soils’ 2327.2.2.1 Introduction and aim 2327.2.2.2 Description of test site 2337.2.2.3 Modelling 2337.2.2.4 Results and conclusions 2367.2.3 Case study: ‘Determining the filtration capacity of soil-aquifer systems by multi tracer experiments’ 2397.2.3.1 Introduction 2397.2.3.2 Laboratory experiments 2407.2.3.3 Field experiments 2427.2.3.4 Assessment of results and methodology 2447.3 Surface water 2467.3.1 Lakes 2477.3.2 Rivers 2487.3.3 Specific aspects of using tracers in surface waters 2507.3.4 Case study: ‘Calibration of transport models using tracer techniques – River Rhine’ 2527.3.4.1 Introduction 2527.3.4.2 Methods 2537.3.4.3 Model conception to be calibrated and validated 2557.3.4.4 Method of resolution for river sections 2567.3.4.5 Tracer experiments 2587.3.4.6 Assessment of the experiments 2727.3.5 Case study: ‘On mixing of effluent inflow’ 2737.3.5.1 Introduction and aim 2737.3.5.2 Methodology 2747.3.5.3 Results 2767.3.6 Case study: ‘Estimation of hydrodynamics and transport parameters in Paiva Castro reservoir, Brazil’ 2777.3.6.1 Introduction and aims 2777.3.6.2 Methodology 2787.3.6.3 Measurements 2787.3.6.4 Mathematical modelling 2797.3.6.5 Results 2797.3.6.6 Conclusions 2817.3.7 Case study: ‘Investigation of internal dynamics and residence time in Lake Bled’ 2827.3.7.1 Introduction 2827.3.7.2 Tracer experiments 2837.3.7.3 Interpretation of the experiments 2907.3.7.4 Modelling 2917.3.7.5 Second study 1988–1991 – determination of residence time 2927.3.7.6 General assessment 2997.3.8 Case study: ‘Optimization of a sewage effluent into Lake Murten’ 2997.4 Glaciers 3037.4.1 Specific techniques of tracer experiments in glaciers 3087.4.2 Injection 3087.4.3 Sampling 3097.4.4 Analyses 3107.4.5 Case study: ‘Tracer experiments in temperate alpine glaciers – Findelen’ 3107.4.5.1 Summer experiments 1982 3127.4.5.2 Winter experiments 1984 3187.5 Catchment scale 3217.5.1 Case study: ‘Surface-groundwater interaction’ 3257.5.1.1 Introduction and aim 3257.5.1.2 Methodology 3267.5.1.3 Water level monitoring 3267.5.1.4 Stable isotopes 3277.5.1.5 Artificial tracer, SF 6 3297.5.1.6 Fluorescent dyes 3307.5.1.7 Conclusions 3307.5.2 Case study: ‘Runoff generation processes investigated using tracers’ 3317.5.2.1 Introduction and aim 3317.5.2.2 Description of test site 3317.5.2.3 Methodology 3327.5.2.4 Data 3357.5.2.5 Results and discussion 3367.5.2.6 Application of tracer results for model design and model validation 3407.5.2.7 Multi tracer experiments at hillslopes 342Colour Plate SectionReferences 349Index 399

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