Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators

David Fischer is Director of Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment at Bayer CropScience.Thomas Moriarty is a Team Leader in the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Pesticide Re-Evaluation Division.

• List of Figures xiList of Tables xvAcknowledgments xviiAbout the Editors xixWorkshop Participants xxiPellston Workshop Series xxvChapter 1 Introduction 11.1 Workshop Balance and Composition 2Chapter 2 Overview of the Honey Bee 3J. Pettis2.1 Overview of Honey Bee Biology 3Chapter 3 Overview of Non-Apis Bees 5M. Vaughan, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, and A. Dinter3.1 Introduction 53.2 Non-Apis Bee Biology and Diversity 73.3 Opportunities for Non-Apis Bees to Inform Pollinator Risk Assessment 123.4 Conclusions 12References 14Chapter 4 Overview of Protection Goals for Pollinators 19T. Moriarty, A. Alix, and M. Miles4.1 Introduction 194.2 Elements and Proposed Protection Goals 204.3 Linking Protection Goals with Assessment Endpoints 214.4 Protection Goals and Monitoring 224.5 Conclusion 22Reference 23Chapter 5 Overview of the Pesticide Risk Assessment and the Regulatory Process 25C. Lee-Steere and T. Steeger5.1 Introduction 255.2 Current Approach for Assessing Effects of Pesticide Products to Pollinators 26References 27Chapter 6 Problem Formulation for an Assessment of Risk to Honey Bees from Applications ofPlant Protection Products to Agricultural Crops 29D. Fischer, A. Alix, M. Coulson, P. Delorme, T. Moriarty, J. Pettis, T. Steeger, and J.D. Wisk6.1 What Is Problem Formulation? 306.2 Case 1: Problem Formulation for a Systemic Chemical Applied to the Soil, or as a Seed-Dressing 356.3 Case 2: Problem Formulation for a Contact Chemical Applied as a Foliar Spray 39References 44Chapter 7 Assessing Exposure of Pesticides to Bees 45J.D.Wisk, J. Pistorius, M. Beevers, R. Bireley, Z. Browning, M.P. Chauzat, A. Nikolakis, J. Overmyer, R. Rose, R. Sebastien, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, A. Dinter, and M. Vaughan7.1 Introduction 467.2 Potential Routes of Exposure for Non-ApisBees 497.3 Methods and Models for Estimating Exposure of Bees to Pesticides 547.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Pesticide Active Ingredients Which Affect Exposure 557.5 Information Needed to Develop Refined Predictive Exposure Models 567.6 Predicted Contact Exposure for Foliar-Applied Products 567.7 Predicted Dietary Exposure for Foliar-Applied Products 597.8 Predicted Exposure for Soil and Seed Treatment Systemic Compounds 617.9 Predicted Exposure for Tree-Injected Compounds 627.10 Measuring Pesticides in Matrices Relevant for Assessing Exposure to Bees 627.11 Higher Tier Studies to Assess Exposure of Pesticides to Bees 637.12 Health of Honey Bee Colonies Can Influence Exposure 657.13 Higher Tier Studies with Non-Apis Bee Species 657.14 Summary and Recommendations 68References 70Chapter 8 Assessing Effects Through Laboratory Toxicity Testing 75J. Frazier, J. Pflugfleder, P. Aupinel, A. Decourtye, J. Ellis, C. Scott-Dupree, Z. Huang, H. Thompson, P. Bachman, A. Dinter, M. Vaughan, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, and R.C.F. Nocelli8.1 Introduction 758.2 Overview of Laboratory Testing Requirements Among Several Countries 778.3 Uncertainties in Current Testing Paradigms 788.4 Limitations and Suggested Improvements for Tier 1 Testing 798.5 Adult Oral Chronic Toxicity—Apis Bees 838.6 Honey Bee Brood Tests in the Laboratory 838.7 Adult Toxicity Testing with Non-Apis Bees 848.8 Sublethal Effects and Test Developments 868.9 Conclusions 91References 91Chapter 9 Assessing Effects Through Semi-Field and Field Toxicity Testing 95J. Pettis, I. Tornier, M. Clook, K. Wallner, B. Vaissiere, T. Stadler, W. Hou, G. Maynard, R. Becker, M. Coulson, P. Jourdan, M. Vaughan, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, A. Dinter, and M. Kasina9.1 Introduction 969.2 Definition of Semi-Field and Field Studies 979.3 Design of a Semi-Field Study 979.4 Outline of a Semi-Field Study for Apis and Non-Apis Bees 1019.5 Design of a Field Study 1089.6 Outline of a Field Study for Apis and Non-Apis Species 1089.7 Role of Monitoring and Incident Reporting 1169.8 Summary 118References 118Chapter 10 Overview of a Proposed Ecological Risk Assessment Process for Honey bees(Apis mellifera) and Non-Apis Bees 121A. Alix, T. Steeger, C. Brittain, D. Fischer, R. Johnson, T. Moriarty, E. Johansen, F. Streissel, R. Fischer, M. Miles, C. Lee-Steere, M. Vaughan, B. Vaissiere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, M. Coulson, A. Dinter, and M. Fry10.1 Introduction 12210.2 Protection Goals, Assessment and Measurement Endpoints, Trigger Values for Transitioning to Higher Levels of Refinement, and Risk Assessment Terminology 12510.3 Risk Assessment Flowcharts 12710.4 Spray Applications 13210.5 Soil and Seed Treatment Applications for Systemic Substances 13410.6 Screening-Level Risk Assessments (Tier 1) 13510.7 Factors Limiting Certainty in Screening Assessments 13510.8 Refinement Options for Screening-Level Risk Assessment 13610.9 Conclusions on the Risks and Recommendations 14410.10 Recommending Risk Mitigation Measures 14510.11 Additional Tools in Support of Risk Assessment and to InformRisk Management 146References 146Chapter 11 Ecological Modeling for Pesticide Risk Assessment for Honey Bees and Other Pollinators 149V. Grimm, M.A. Becher, P. Kennedy, P. Thorbek, and J. Osborne11.1 Introduction 14911.2 Example Model: Common Shrew 15011.3 Rationale and Approaches of Mechanistic Effect Modeling 15211.4 Modeling Practice for Risk Assessment 15411.5 Existing Models of Pollinators 15511.6 Discussion 159References 160Chapter 12 Data Analysis Issues 163W. Warren-Hicks12.1 Study Duration 16312.2 Replicates and Dosing 16312.3 Long-Term Tests 16412.4 Statistical Models 164Chapter 13 Risk Mitigation and Performance Criteria 165E. Johansen, M. Fry, and T. Moriarty13.1 The Role of Risk Management in Pollinator Protection 16513.2 Regulatory Risk Mitigation Methods16713.3 Non-Regulatory Risk Mitigation Methods 16913.4 Suggested Techniques to Mitigate Risks to Other Species of Bees 17013.5 Pesticide Application Technologies to Mitigate Exposure to Bees 171References 172Chapter 14 Recommendations for Future Research in Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators 17314.1 Exposure 17314.2 Effects 175References 177Appendix 1 Elements for a Chronic Adult Oral Toxicity Study 179Appendix 2 Elements of a Larval Study 181Appendix 3 Elements of Artificial Flower Test 187Appendix 4 Elements of theVisual Learning Test 189Appendix 5 Foraging Behavior with Radio Frequency Identification 193Appendix 6 Detailed Description of the Proposed Overall Risk Assessment Scheme 195Glossary of Terms 209Index 211Color plate section is located between pages 120 and 121.

“The debate concerning the effects of neonicotinoids on bees, though probably not the one about mobile phones, will no doubt continue for a long time so the publication of this excellent and comprehensive book is timely.”  (Chemistry & Industry, 26 January 2015)