Measuring Change in Counseling and Psychotherapy

Scott T. Meier is Professor and Chair of the Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. His main research and teaching are in the areas of psychological measurement (particularly outcome assessment), research methods (program evaluation), and counseling skills (integration of case conceptualization and assessment with intervention). Dr. Meier is a member of the American Evaluation Association, the Association for Psychological Science, and the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. He is the author or coauthor of four books (including The Elements of Counseling) and has published in American Psychologist, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, and the American Journal of Evaluation.

• 1. Introduction and RationaleContemporary Psychological TestingContemporary Psychotherapy Research and PracticeThe Implications of Research Stuckness for Clinical PracticeSummary and Conclusions2. A History of TraitsThe Seeds of ConflictThe Desire to Be ScientificThe Model of PhysiologyBiology and Individual DifferencesThe Desire to Be RelevantThe Need for ClassificationThe Consequences of the Adoption of a Trait-Based Measurement ParadigmLoss of Experimental Methods Inhibits Recognition of Method VarianceThe Gain of Traits and Loss of SituationsHandling Error with Classical Test TheoryStatistics Related to MeasurementAssessment as a Complement to MeasurementDeemphasizing Measurement TheoryLoss of PrecisionThe Wisdom and Tyranny of TraditionThe Success and Failure of the MarketSummary and Implications3. Reliability, Validity, and Systematic ErrorsIntroductionThinking about Reliability and ValidityTypes of ValidityConstructs, Theories, and Valid MeasurementConstruct ExplicationMultitrait–Multimethod Matrices: Investigating the Effects of Method Variance on ValidityCampbell and FiskeCriteria for Construct ValidityAn MTMM ExampleProblems with Campbell and Fiske's approachThe Factor Analytic Approach to Construct ValidityHistory of Self-Report and Interview ErrorsSelf-ReportsInterviews and Observational MethodsMeasurement ErrorSystematic Errors Associated with Self-ReportsDissimulation and MalingeringSocial DesirabilitySystematic Errors Associated with Ratings by OthersHalo ErrorsLeniency and Criticalness ErrorsCauses of InconsistencyCognitive InfluencesItem Comprehension ProblemsTest CuesLow Cognitive AbilityAffective and Motivational InfluencesTest AnxietyNegative Emotional StatesEnvironmental and Cultural InfluencesReactivityStereotype ThreatSummary and Implications4. States, Traits, and ValidityIntroductionHistoryThe Controversy of Mischel and Peterson: The Benefits of ConflictThe Rejection of Traits: Behavioral AssessmentReinforcing the Trait ArgumentPerson–environment InteractionsAptitude-by-Treatment InteractionsEnvironmental AssessmentModerators of Cross-Situational ConsistencySummary and Integration5. Context Effects and ValidityIntroductionUnderstanding Inconsistency: Clues from Psychophysics MeasurementThe Limitations of Psychophysical MeasurementConclusions and Implications from Psychophysical ResearchImproving the Principles of Construct ExplicationTest PurposeTest ContentTest ContextShared Contexts and Method VarianceApplicationsRecommendations Related to Test PurposeRecommendations Related to Test ContentRecommendations Related to Test ContextsSummary and Implications6. Nomothetic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing OutcomesHistory and BackgroundExamples of Nomothetic MeasuresBeck Depression InventoryState–Trait Anxiety InventoryGlobal Assessment of FunctioningOutcome QuestionnairePsychometric Principles and Nomothetic MeasuresReliability of Nomothetic MeasuresValidityApplicationsCreating Change-Sensitive MeasuresPsychometric Properties of Aggregate ScalesUsing Change-Sensitive Tests in Program EvaluationsAn Evidence-Based Approach to SupervisionSummary and Integration7. Idiographic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing OutcomesHistory and BackgroundPsychometric Principles and Idiographic MeasuresReliability of Idiographic MeasuresValidity of Idiographic MeasuresApplicationsBegin with the Case Conceptualizatio

"This text should have a prominent place in professional psychology training programs. It offers an important and needed perspective on measurement for those preparing for careers in counseling and psychotherapy, and a helpful corrective to the practice of relying on trait measures for the evaluation of clinical change. Meier has done a fine job of tying measurement to practice issues, showing how outcome data can be used for clinical feedback and to inform clinical decision making. He clearly distinguishes how a test that is valid for measuring traits may not be valid for measuring clinical change, and vice versa. At a time when accountability is a driving force in the profession, the measurement and assessment perspectives provided by this book couldn’t be more opportune. This book would be most pertinent to doctoral and master's students in counseling psychology and would make an excellent addition to an assessment sequence--in particular, as a companion text in a personality/psychodiagnostic assessment course."--James W. Lichtenberg, PhD, Professor of Counseling Psychology and Associate Dean, School of Education, University of Kansas"The strength of this book is that it offers comprehensive and sophisticated coverage of issues related to psychological testing, with a special focus on issues related to counseling and psychotherapy, which makes it unique and valuable. The author does a very good job of explaining terms and concepts and takes the reader deep into the complex and sophisticated world of psychological testing. I would highly recommend it to colleagues interested in psychotherapy research and empirical evaluations of psychotherapy services."--John Suler, PhD, Department of Psychology, Rider University"A cutting-edge text that highlights the theoretical, methodological, and practical differences between traditional psychological measurement and the measurement of change in counseling/psychotherapy. It is very timely given the current pressures for accountability."--David A. Vermeersch, PhD, Department of Psychology, Loma Linda University"The approach makes a great deal of sense. It covers important conceptual issues as well as practical matters. When students complete the assignments they will be prepared to go through the same steps in either selecting an outcome measure or in organizing an assessment strategy as well as critically appraising existing practices and their limitations. I would recommend the book to a colleague who wants students to have a good primer for assessing treatment effects."--Michael J. Lambert, PhD, Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University-