Materials for Solar Energy Conversion

R. Rajasekar PhD, Professor and Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (an Autonomous Institution under Anna University), Tamilnadu, India. He obtained his PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, and specializes in materials science and engineering, renewable energy, surface coating on solar cells, and tribological performance of carbide inserts. He has published more than 100 research articles in reputed international journals, as well as more than 30 book chapters.C. Moganapriya PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (An Autonomous Institution under Anna University), Tamilnadu, India. She completed her PhD in 2019, and her current research area includes surface engineering of solar cells for performance enhancement of power conversion efficiency and tribological performance of cutting tool insert by adopting several hard coating materials. She has published 13 research articles and 15 book chapters with international publishers. A. Mohan Kumar PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (An Autonomous Institution under Anna University), Tamil Nadu. He completed his postgraduate degree at Government College of Engineering, Salem. His research areas are the characterization of reinforced composite materials, composite machining polymer coatings, and nanocomposite coatings. He has published 13 research articles and book chapters.

• Preface xvPart 1: Solar Cells - Fundamentals and Emerging Categories 11 Introduction to Solar Energy Conversion 3Manivannan Rajendran, Moganapriya Chinnasamy, Suresh Muthusamy and Manikandan Kumaran Nair1.1 Introduction 31.2 Forms of Energy 51.3 Solar Radiation 61.4 Heat Transfer Principles 71.4.1 Conduction 71.4.2 Convection 71.4.3 Radiation 71.5 Basic Laws of Radiation 81.5.1 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 81.5.2 Planck’s Law 91.5.3 Wien’s Displacement Law 91.6 Solar Energy Conversion 91.6.1 Sources of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy 101.6.2 Differentiate Between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources 101.7 Photo-Thermal Conversion System 111.7.1 Flat Plate Collector 111.7.2 Evacuated Solar Collector 151.8 Thermal Applications 151.8.1 Solar Water Heating Systems 171.8.2 Steam Generation 201.9 Solar Drying 211.9.1 Natural Circulation Methods 231.9.2 Forced Circulation Systems 251.10 Photovoltaic Conversion 251.10.1 Photovoltaic Effect 261.10.2 Applications 271.11 Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 271.12 Conclusion 28References 282 Development of Solar Cells 33Mohan Kumar Anand Raj, Rajasekar Rathanasamy and Moganapriya ChinnasamyAbbreviations 332.1 Introduction 342.2 First-Generation PV Cells 342.2.1 Single-Crystalline PV Cells 352.3 Second-Generation Solar PV Technology 362.3.1 Amorphous Silicon PV Cell 362.3.2 Cadmium Telluride PV Cell 372.3.3 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide PV Cells 382.4 Third-Generation PV Cells 382.4.1 Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide PV Cell 402.4.2 Dye Sensitized PV Ccell 402.4.3 Organic PV Cell 422.4.4 Perovskite PV Solar Cells 432.4.5 Polymer Photovoltaic Cell 432.4.6 Quantum Dot Photovoltaic Cell 432.5 Conclusion 44References 453 Recycling of Solar Panels 47Sathish Kumar Palaniappan, Moganapriya Chinnasamy, Rajasekar Rathanasamy and Samir Kumar PalAbbreviations 483.1 Introduction 493.2 PV and Recycling Development Worldwide 523.2.1 Causes of Inability in Solar PV Panel 543.3 Current Recycling and Recovery Techniques 553.3.1 Methods for Recycling 553.3.2 Physical Separation 553.3.3 Thermal and Chemical-Based Treatment 563.4 Strategies for Recycling Processes 633.5 Approaches for Recycling of Solar Panel 653.5.1 Component Repair 663.5.2 Module Separation 663.5.3 Decomposition of Silicon and Precious Industrial Minerals From Modules 683.6 Global Surveys in PV Recycling Technology 713.7 Ecological and Economic Impacts 763.7.1 Evolutionary Factors 773.7.2 Socio-Economic Concerns 773.8 Conclusion 78References 794 Multi-Junction Solar Cells 87Mohanraj Thangamuthu, Tamilvanan Ayyasamy and Santhosh SivarajAbbreviation 874.1 Introduction 884.1.1 Theory of Multi-Junction Cells 894.2 Key Issues for Realizing the Efficiency of MJCs 914.2.1 Preference of Top Layer Materials and Enhancing the Quality 914.2.2 Low-Loss Tunneling Junction for Intercell Connection and Preventing Impurity Diffusion From Tunneling Junction 924.2.3 Lattice-Matching Between Cell Materials and Substrates 924.2.4 Effectiveness of Wide-Bandgap Back Surface Field (BSF) Layer 924.3 Structure of Multi-Junction Cell 934.3.1 Multi-Junction Cell With BSF Layer 964.3.2 Optimization of BSF Layers 984.4 Novel Materials for Multi-Junction Cells 984.5 Applications 1004.6 Conclusions 102References 1025 Perovskite Solar Cells 107Santhosh Sivaraj, Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan and Mugilan Thanigachalam5.1 Introduction 1085.2 Structure and Working 1125.3 Fabrication of Simple Perovskite Solar Cell 1155.4 Fabrication Methods 1175.4.1 Spin Coating 1225.4.2 Blade Coating 1225.4.3 Slot-Die Coating 1225.4.4 Inkjet Printing 1235.4.5 Screen Printing 1235.4.6 Electrodeposition 1235.4.7 Vapor-Phase Deposition 1235.5 Stability of Perovskite Solar Cell 1245.6 Losses in Solar Cells 1245.7 Conclusion 126References 1276 Natural Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 133Viswapriya Shanmugam, Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Saratha Raman and Abbas GanesanAbbreviations 1346.1 Introduction 1346.2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 1356.2.1 The Structure and Operation Principle 1366.2.2 Performance Parameters of DSSCs 1376.2.2.1 Open Circuit Voltage 1386.2.2.2 Short Circuit Current 1386.2.2.3 Fill Factor 1386.2.2.4 Efficiency 1386.3 Dye (Photosensitizer) 1386.3.1 Natural Dyes 1396.3.2 Plant Pigments 1466.3.2.1 Anthocyanin 1466.3.2.2 Chlorophylls 1476.3.2.3 Betalain 1476.3.2.4 Carotenoids 1476.3.3 Photoconversion Efficiency of Natural Dyes Employed as Dye Sensitizers—Notable Studies 1486.4 Conclusion 162References 162Part 2: Materials, Methods and Applications 1697 Organic Materials and Their Processing Techniques 171Raja Gunasekaran, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Saravanakumar Jaganathan and Harikrishnakumar Mohan Kumar7.1 Introduction 1727.2 Organic Materials 1737.2.1 Organic Solar Cell 1747.2.2 Challenges in Organic Solar Cells 1747.2.3 Focus Area to Overcome the Challenges 1747.2.4 Operation of Organic Solar Cells 1747.2.5 Organic Solar Cell Device Architecture 1767.2.5.1 Single Active-Layer Device 1767.2.5.2 Double Active-Layer Device 1767.2.5.3 Bulk Heterojunction Photovoltaic Cell 1777.3 Electrical Characteristics of OPVs 1787.3.1 Open-Circuit Voltage 1787.3.2 Short-Circuit Current 1797.3.3 Maximum Power Point 1797.3.4 Fill Factor 1797.3.5 Power Conversion Efficiency 1797.3.6 Quantum Efficiency 1807.4 Potential Materials for OPV Applications 1807.4.1 Electron-Donor Materials 1807.4.2 Electron-Acceptor Materials 1837.5 Conclusion 184References 1858 Inorganic Materials and Their Processing Techniques 189Manivasakan Palanisamy, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan and Harikrishnakumar Mohan Kumar8.1 Introduction 1908.2 Functional Inorganic Materials 1918.3 Comprehensive Processing Strategy 1928.4 Solid-Phase Processing 1948.4.1 Ceramic Method 1948.4.2 Microwave Technique 1958.4.3 Combustion Synthesis 1968.4.4 Mechanochemical Synthesis 1978.4.5 Carbothermal Reduction 1988.4.6 Friction Consolidation 1998.4.7 3D Printing Technique 2008.4.8 Nanolithography Technique 2018.5 Solution-Phase Processing 2028.5.1 Sol-Gel Process 2028.5.2 Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Process 2038.5.3 Sonochemical Synthesis 2048.5.4 Surface Coating Technique 2068.5.5 Spray Pyrolysis Technique 2078.5.6 Electroplating and Electrodeposition Process 2088.5.7 Liquid Printing Technique 2098.5.8 Liquid-Phase Laser Ablation Technique 2108.5.9 Electrospinning and Electrospraying Technique 2128.6 Gas-Phase Processing 2138.6.1 Physical Vapor Deposition Technique 2138.6.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 2158.6.3 Inert Gas Condensation Technique 2168.6.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technique 2188.6.5 Gas-Phase Flame Spray Pyrolysis 2198.7 Challenges in Nanomaterial Production and Processing 2218.8 Conclusion and Perspectives 222References 2229 2D Materials for Solar Cell Applications 227Shrabani De, Sourav Acharya, Sumanta Sahoo, Ashok Kumar Das and Ganesh Chandra Nayak9.1 Introduction 2289.2 Fundamental Principles of Solar Cell 2319.3 Fabrication Methods for the Generation of Solar Cell 2349.3.1 Spin Coating 2349.3.2 Spray Coating 2379.3.3 Doctor Blading 2389.3.4 Slot-Die Coating 2389.3.5 Vacuum Deposition/Chemical Vapor Deposition 2409.3.6 Screen Printing 2419.4 Introduction to 2D Materials 2429.4.1 Graphene 2429.4.2 Boron Nitride 2449.4.3 Molybdenum Disulfide 2449.4.4 MXenes 2459.4.5 Other 2D Materials 2469.5 Solar Cell Application of 2D Materials 2469.5.1 2D Materials for Organic Solar Cells 2469.5.2 2D Materials for Perovskite Solar Cells 2499.5.3 2D Materials for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 2519.5.4 2D Materials for Other Solar Cell 2559.6 Conclusions 256References 25710 Nanostructured Materials and Their Processing Techniques 269Tamilvanan Ayyasamy, Abubakkar Abdul Jaffar, Selvakumar Pandiyaraj, Mohanraj Thangamuthu and Thangavel Palaniappan10.1 Introduction 26910.2 The Need for Solar Energy 27010.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic Cell 27110.2.2 Solar Thermal Heating 27210.3 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 27310.4 Nanotechnology in Solar Energy 27310.4.1 Nanomaterials 27410.4.2 Properties of Nanomaterials 27510.4.3 Nanofluids 27510.5 The Outlook of Nanomaterials in the Performance of Solar Cells 27610.6 Photovoltaic-Based Nanomaterials and Synthesis Techniques 27710.6.1 Sol-Gel Method 27810.6.2 Hydrothermal Method 28010.6.3 Solvothermal Technique 28110.6.4 Co-Precipitation Technique 28310.6.5 Magnetron Sputtering 28410.6.6 Spin Coating 28610.6.7 Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 28710.6.7.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition Method 28910.6.7.2 Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition Method 29010.7 Nanofluids in Solar Collectors 29010.8 Nanofluids in Solar Stills 29210.9 Conclusion 293References 29311 Coating Materials, Methods, and Techniques 299Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Raja Gunasekaran, Manju Sri Anbupalani and Sathish Kumar Palaniappan11.1 Introduction 30011.2 Thin Film Deposition Techniques 30111.2.1 Advantages of Thin Films 30111.3 Anti-Reflection Thin Films 30211.4 Methods of Thin Film Growth 30311.4.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 30411.4.2 Thermal Evaporation Process 30411.4.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition 30411.4.4 Sputter Deposition 30411.4.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition 30511.4.6 Plasma-Enhanced CVD Method 30511.4.7 Electrochemical Deposition 30511.4.8 Sol-Gel Thin Film Formation 30611.5 Thin Film Characterization 30811.5.1 X-ray Diffraction 30811.5.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 30911.5.3 Thermogravimetry and Differential Thermal Analysis 31011.5.4 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 31111.5.5 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope 31211.5.6 High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscope 31411.5.7 Atomic Force Microscopy 31411.5.8 Four-Probe Technique 31711.6 Performance Analysis of ARC Coated Solar Cells 31711.7 Conclusion 320References 32012 Anti-Reflection Coating 323Ragavendran Asokan, Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Saravanakumar Jaganathan and Mohan Kumar Anand Raj12.1 Introduction 32412.2 Anti-Reflection Coating 32612.2.1 Types of Anti-Reflection Coating 32912.2.2 Textured Coating 33012.2.3 Anti-Reflection Coating With Self-Cleaning 33112.3 Perspectives on ARC Materials 33112.3.1 Silicon-Based Material 33212.3.2 TiO2-Based Material 33212.3.3 Carbon-Based Material 33312.3.4 Gallium-Based Material 33312.3.5 Polymer-Based Material 33312.3.6 Organic-Based Material 33412.4 Techniques for Coating ARC 33412.4.1 Sol-Gel Technique 33412.4.1.1 Spin Coating Technique 33412.4.1.2 Dip Coating Technique 33512.4.1.3 Meniscus Coating Technique 33612.4.2 Physical Vapor Deposition 33712.4.2.1 Thermal Evaporation Technique 33712.4.2.2 Electron Beam Technique 33812.4.3 RF and DC Magnetron Sputtering Technique 33812.4.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 33912.4.5 Electrospinning Technique 33912.4.6 Spray Pyrolysis Technique 34112.4.7 Lithography 34112.4.8 Comparison of Coating Techniques 34212.5 Literature Studies: Impact of ARC on Performance of Solar Cell 34312.6 Conclusion 345References 34613 Thermal Energy Storage and Its Applications 353Veerakumar Chinnasamy, Sathish Kumar Palaniappan, Mohan Kumar Anand Raj, Manivannan Rajendran and Honghyun Cho13.1 Introduction 35413.2 Types of ES 35413.2.1 Mechanical ES 35413.2.1.1 Flywheel Storage 35513.2.1.2 Pumped Water Storage 35513.2.1.3 Compressed Air Storage 35513.2.2 Electrochemical ES 35513.2.3 Thermal Energy Storage 35613.2.4 Advantages of TES 35613.3 Methods of TES 35713.3.1 Sensible Heat Storage 35713.3.1.1 Properties of SHS Materials 35713.3.2 Latent Heat Storage 35813.3.2.1 Properties of LHS Materials or PCMs 35913.3.2.2 Classification of PCMs 35913.3.3 Thermochemical ES 36213.4 Applications of TES 36213.4.1 SHS Applications 36213.4.1.1 Solar Pond 36213.4.1.2 Solar Water Heating 36313.4.1.3 Packed Rock Bed Storage 36313.4.2 Latent Heat Storage Applications 36513.4.2.1 Encapsulation of PCM 36513.4.2.2 Solar Water Heater With LHS 36713.4.2.3 TES for Building Application 36713.4.2.4 Numerical Studies on TES 37013.5 Conclusion 374References 375Index 379