THE EDITORS:ALAN KEITH TURNEREmeritus Professor of Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 80401 USAHOLGER KESSLERTeam Leader, Geological Modeling Systems, British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG UKMICHIEL J. VAN DER MEULENChief Geologist, TNO / Geological Survey of the Netherlands, PO Box 80015, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands

• List of Contributors xxi Acknowledgments xxviiiPart I Introduction and Background 11 Introduction to Modeling Terminology and Concepts 3Alan Keith Turner, Holger Kessler, and Michiel J. van der Meulen2 Geological Survey Data and the Move from 2-D to 4-D 13Martin Culshaw, Ian Jackson, Denis Peach, Michiel J. van der Meulen, Richard Berg, and Harvey Thorleifson3 Legislation, Regulation, and Management 35Brian Marker and Alan Keith Turner4 The Economic Case for Establishing Subsurface Ground Conditions and the Use of Geological Models 69Jennifer GatesPart II Building and Managing Models 935 Overview and History of 3-D Modeling Approaches 95Andrew J. Stumpf, Donald A. Keefer, and Alan Keith Turner6 Effective and Efficient Workflows 113Donald A. Keefer and Jason F. Thomason7 Data Sources for Building Geological Models 133Abigail K. Burt, Phillip Sirles, and Alan Keith Turner8 Data Management Considerations 183Martin L. Nayembil9 Model Creation Using Stacked Surfaces 211Jason F. Thomason and Donald A. Keefer10 Model Creation Based on Digital Borehole Records and Interpreted Geological Cross-Sections 235Benjamin Wood and Holger Kessler11 Models Created as 3-D Cellular Voxel Arrays 247Jan Stafleu, Denise Maljers, Freek S. Busschers, Jeroen Schokker, Jan L. Gunnink, and Roula M. Dambrink12 Integrated Rule-Based Geomodeling – Explicit and Implicit Approaches 273Martin Ross, Amanda Taylor, Samuel Kelley, Simon Lopez, Cécile Allanic, Gabriel Courrioux, Bernard Bourgine, Philippe Calcagno, Séverine Carit, and Sunseare Gabalda13 Discretization and Stochastic Modeling 295Alan Keith Turner14 Linkage to Process Models 319Geoff Parkin, Elizabeth Lewis, Frans van Geer, Aris Lourens, Wilbert Berendrecht, James Howard, Denis Peach, and Nicholas Vlachopoulos15 Uncertainty in 3-D Geological Models 357Marco Bianchi, Alan Keith Turner, Murray Lark, and Gabriel CourriouxPart III Using and Disseminating Models 38316 Emerging User Needs in Urban Planning 385Miguel Pazos Otón, Rubén C. Lois González, Ignace P.A.M. van Campenhout, Jeroen Schokker, Carl Watson, and Michiel J. van der Meulen17 Providing Model Results to Diverse User Communities 403Peter Wycisk and Lars SchimpfPart IV Case Studies 42718 Application Theme 1 – Urban Planning 429Editor’s Introduction 429Case Study 18.1: Integrated 3-D Modeling of the Urban Underground of Darmstadt, Hesse, Germany 430Rouwen Lehné, Christina Habenberger, Jacob Wächter, and Heiner Heggemann19 Application Theme 2 – Groundwater Evaluations 457Editor’s Introduction 457Case Study 19.1: Three-dimensional Geological Modeling of the Uppsala Esker to Evaluate the Supply of Municipal Water to the City of Uppsala 458Eva Jirner, P-O. Johansson, and Duncan McConnachie20 Application Theme 3 – Geothermal Heating and Cooling 479Editor’s Introduction 479Case Study 20.1: Assessing Shallow Geothermal Resources at Zaragoza, Northeast Spain, with 3-D Geological Models 480Alejandro García-Gil, Miguel Á. Marazuela, Violeta Velasco, Mar Alcaraz, Enric Vázquez-Suñé, and Albert Corbera21 Application Theme 4 – Regulatory Support 501Editor’s Introduction 501Case Study 21.1: The use of 3-D Models to Manage the Groundwater Resources of the Lower Greensand Confined Aquifer, Hertfordshire and North London, England 502Catherine Cripps, Michael Kehinde, Melinda Lewis, and Marieta Garcia-Bajo22 Application Theme 5 – Geohazard and Environmental Risk Applications 519Editor’s Introduction 519Case Study 22.1: Christchurch City, New Zealand, 3-D Geological Model Contributes to Post-Earthquake Rebuilding 520Mark S. Rattenbury, John G. Begg, and Katie E. Jones23 Application Theme 6 – Urban Infrastructure 555Editor’s Introduction 555Case Study 23.1: Design and Construction of a New Crossrail Station in London Assisted by a 3-D Ground Model 556Angelos Gakis, Paula Cabrero, and David Entwisle24 Application Theme 7 – Building and Construction 573Editor’s Introduction 573Case Study 24.1: Three-Dimensional Volume Change Potential Modeling in the London Clay 573Lee Jones, Ricky Terrington, and Andy Hulbert25 Application Theme 8 – Historical Preservation and Anthropogenic Deposits 595Editor’s Introduction 595Case Study 25.1: Evaluating Geological and Anthropogenic Deposits at the Bryggen World Heritage Site, Bergen, Norway 596Johannes de Beer and Jonathan R. FordPart V Future Possibilities and Challenges 61926 Anticipated Technological Advances 621Matthew Lato, Robin Harrap, and Kelsey MacCormackIndex 635

THE EDITORS:ALAN KEITH TURNEREmeritus Professor of Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 80401 USAHOLGER KESSLERTeam Leader, Geological Modeling Systems, British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG UKMICHIEL J. VAN DER MEULENChief Geologist, TNO / Geological Survey of the Netherlands, PO Box 80015, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands

• List of Contributors xxi Acknowledgments xxviiiPart I Introduction and Background 11 Introduction to Modeling Terminology and Concepts 3Alan Keith Turner, Holger Kessler, and Michiel J. van der Meulen2 Geological Survey Data and the Move from 2-D to 4-D 13Martin Culshaw, Ian Jackson, Denis Peach, Michiel J. van der Meulen, Richard Berg, and Harvey Thorleifson3 Legislation, Regulation, and Management 35Brian Marker and Alan Keith Turner4 The Economic Case for Establishing Subsurface Ground Conditions and the Use of Geological Models 69Jennifer GatesPart II Building and Managing Models 935 Overview and History of 3-D Modeling Approaches 95Andrew J. Stumpf, Donald A. Keefer, and Alan Keith Turner6 Effective and Efficient Workflows 113Donald A. Keefer and Jason F. Thomason7 Data Sources for Building Geological Models 133Abigail K. Burt, Phillip Sirles, and Alan Keith Turner8 Data Management Considerations 183Martin L. Nayembil9 Model Creation Using Stacked Surfaces 211Jason F. Thomason and Donald A. Keefer10 Model Creation Based on Digital Borehole Records and Interpreted Geological Cross-Sections 235Benjamin Wood and Holger Kessler11 Models Created as 3-D Cellular Voxel Arrays 247Jan Stafleu, Denise Maljers, Freek S. Busschers, Jeroen Schokker, Jan L. Gunnink, and Roula M. Dambrink12 Integrated Rule-Based Geomodeling – Explicit and Implicit Approaches 273Martin Ross, Amanda Taylor, Samuel Kelley, Simon Lopez, Cécile Allanic, Gabriel Courrioux, Bernard Bourgine, Philippe Calcagno, Séverine Carit, and Sunseare Gabalda13 Discretization and Stochastic Modeling 295Alan Keith Turner14 Linkage to Process Models 319Geoff Parkin, Elizabeth Lewis, Frans van Geer, Aris Lourens, Wilbert Berendrecht, James Howard, Denis Peach, and Nicholas Vlachopoulos15 Uncertainty in 3-D Geological Models 357Marco Bianchi, Alan Keith Turner, Murray Lark, and Gabriel CourriouxPart III Using and Disseminating Models 38316 Emerging User Needs in Urban Planning 385Miguel Pazos Otón, Rubén C. Lois González, Ignace P.A.M. van Campenhout, Jeroen Schokker, Carl Watson, and Michiel J. van der Meulen17 Providing Model Results to Diverse User Communities 403Peter Wycisk and Lars SchimpfPart IV Case Studies 42718 Application Theme 1 – Urban Planning 429Editor’s Introduction 429Case Study 18.1: Integrated 3-D Modeling of the Urban Underground of Darmstadt, Hesse, Germany 430Rouwen Lehné, Christina Habenberger, Jacob Wächter, and Heiner Heggemann19 Application Theme 2 – Groundwater Evaluations 457Editor’s Introduction 457Case Study 19.1: Three-dimensional Geological Modeling of the Uppsala Esker to Evaluate the Supply of Municipal Water to the City of Uppsala 458Eva Jirner, P-O. Johansson, and Duncan McConnachie20 Application Theme 3 – Geothermal Heating and Cooling 479Editor’s Introduction 479Case Study 20.1: Assessing Shallow Geothermal Resources at Zaragoza, Northeast Spain, with 3-D Geological Models 480Alejandro García-Gil, Miguel Á. Marazuela, Violeta Velasco, Mar Alcaraz, Enric Vázquez-Suñé, and Albert Corbera21 Application Theme 4 – Regulatory Support 501Editor’s Introduction 501Case Study 21.1: The use of 3-D Models to Manage the Groundwater Resources of the Lower Greensand Confined Aquifer, Hertfordshire and North London, England 502Catherine Cripps, Michael Kehinde, Melinda Lewis, and Marieta Garcia-Bajo22 Application Theme 5 – Geohazard and Environmental Risk Applications 519Editor’s Introduction 519Case Study 22.1: Christchurch City, New Zealand, 3-D Geological Model Contributes to Post-Earthquake Rebuilding 520Mark S. Rattenbury, John G. Begg, and Katie E. Jones23 Application Theme 6 – Urban Infrastructure 555Editor’s Introduction 555Case Study 23.1: Design and Construction of a New Crossrail Station in London Assisted by a 3-D Ground Model 556Angelos Gakis, Paula Cabrero, and David Entwisle24 Application Theme 7 – Building and Construction 573Editor’s Introduction 573Case Study 24.1: Three-Dimensional Volume Change Potential Modeling in the London Clay 573Lee Jones, Ricky Terrington, and Andy Hulbert25 Application Theme 8 – Historical Preservation and Anthropogenic Deposits 595Editor’s Introduction 595Case Study 25.1: Evaluating Geological and Anthropogenic Deposits at the Bryggen World Heritage Site, Bergen, Norway 596Johannes de Beer and Jonathan R. FordPart V Future Possibilities and Challenges 61926 Anticipated Technological Advances 621Matthew Lato, Robin Harrap, and Kelsey MacCormackIndex 635

THE EDITORS:ALAN KEITH TURNEREmeritus Professor of Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 80401 USAHOLGER KESSLERTeam Leader, Geological Modeling Systems, British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG UKMICHIEL J. VAN DER MEULENChief Geologist, TNO / Geological Survey of the Netherlands, PO Box 80015, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands

• List of Contributors xxi Acknowledgments xxviiiPart I Introduction and Background 11 Introduction to Modeling Terminology and Concepts 3Alan Keith Turner, Holger Kessler, and Michiel J. van der Meulen2 Geological Survey Data and the Move from 2-D to 4-D 13Martin Culshaw, Ian Jackson, Denis Peach, Michiel J. van der Meulen, Richard Berg, and Harvey Thorleifson3 Legislation, Regulation, and Management 35Brian Marker and Alan Keith Turner4 The Economic Case for Establishing Subsurface Ground Conditions and the Use of Geological Models 69Jennifer GatesPart II Building and Managing Models 935 Overview and History of 3-D Modeling Approaches 95Andrew J. Stumpf, Donald A. Keefer, and Alan Keith Turner6 Effective and Efficient Workflows 113Donald A. Keefer and Jason F. Thomason7 Data Sources for Building Geological Models 133Abigail K. Burt, Phillip Sirles, and Alan Keith Turner8 Data Management Considerations 183Martin L. Nayembil9 Model Creation Using Stacked Surfaces 211Jason F. Thomason and Donald A. Keefer10 Model Creation Based on Digital Borehole Records and Interpreted Geological Cross-Sections 235Benjamin Wood and Holger Kessler11 Models Created as 3-D Cellular Voxel Arrays 247Jan Stafleu, Denise Maljers, Freek S. Busschers, Jeroen Schokker, Jan L. Gunnink, and Roula M. Dambrink12 Integrated Rule-Based Geomodeling – Explicit and Implicit Approaches 273Martin Ross, Amanda Taylor, Samuel Kelley, Simon Lopez, Cécile Allanic, Gabriel Courrioux, Bernard Bourgine, Philippe Calcagno, Séverine Carit, and Sunseare Gabalda13 Discretization and Stochastic Modeling 295Alan Keith Turner14 Linkage to Process Models 319Geoff Parkin, Elizabeth Lewis, Frans van Geer, Aris Lourens, Wilbert Berendrecht, James Howard, Denis Peach, and Nicholas Vlachopoulos15 Uncertainty in 3-D Geological Models 357Marco Bianchi, Alan Keith Turner, Murray Lark, and Gabriel CourriouxPart III Using and Disseminating Models 38316 Emerging User Needs in Urban Planning 385Miguel Pazos Otón, Rubén C. Lois González, Ignace P.A.M. van Campenhout, Jeroen Schokker, Carl Watson, and Michiel J. van der Meulen17 Providing Model Results to Diverse User Communities 403Peter Wycisk and Lars SchimpfPart IV Case Studies 42718 Application Theme 1 – Urban Planning 429Editor’s Introduction 429Case Study 18.1: Integrated 3-D Modeling of the Urban Underground of Darmstadt, Hesse, Germany 430Rouwen Lehné, Christina Habenberger, Jacob Wächter, and Heiner Heggemann19 Application Theme 2 – Groundwater Evaluations 457Editor’s Introduction 457Case Study 19.1: Three-dimensional Geological Modeling of the Uppsala Esker to Evaluate the Supply of Municipal Water to the City of Uppsala 458Eva Jirner, P-O. Johansson, and Duncan McConnachie20 Application Theme 3 – Geothermal Heating and Cooling 479Editor’s Introduction 479Case Study 20.1: Assessing Shallow Geothermal Resources at Zaragoza, Northeast Spain, with 3-D Geological Models 480Alejandro García-Gil, Miguel Á. Marazuela, Violeta Velasco, Mar Alcaraz, Enric Vázquez-Suñé, and Albert Corbera21 Application Theme 4 – Regulatory Support 501Editor’s Introduction 501Case Study 21.1: The use of 3-D Models to Manage the Groundwater Resources of the Lower Greensand Confined Aquifer, Hertfordshire and North London, England 502Catherine Cripps, Michael Kehinde, Melinda Lewis, and Marieta Garcia-Bajo22 Application Theme 5 – Geohazard and Environmental Risk Applications 519Editor’s Introduction 519Case Study 22.1: Christchurch City, New Zealand, 3-D Geological Model Contributes to Post-Earthquake Rebuilding 520Mark S. Rattenbury, John G. Begg, and Katie E. Jones23 Application Theme 6 – Urban Infrastructure 555Editor’s Introduction 555Case Study 23.1: Design and Construction of a New Crossrail Station in London Assisted by a 3-D Ground Model 556Angelos Gakis, Paula Cabrero, and David Entwisle24 Application Theme 7 – Building and Construction 573Editor’s Introduction 573Case Study 24.1: Three-Dimensional Volume Change Potential Modeling in the London Clay 573Lee Jones, Ricky Terrington, and Andy Hulbert25 Application Theme 8 – Historical Preservation and Anthropogenic Deposits 595Editor’s Introduction 595Case Study 25.1: Evaluating Geological and Anthropogenic Deposits at the Bryggen World Heritage Site, Bergen, Norway 596Johannes de Beer and Jonathan R. FordPart V Future Possibilities and Challenges 61926 Anticipated Technological Advances 621Matthew Lato, Robin Harrap, and Kelsey MacCormackIndex 635